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THE CONSERVATION OF 
THE WILD LIFE OF CANADA 




WAPITI 

From a painting by Carl Rungius. Reproduced by courtesy of the New York 
Zoological Society 



THE CONSERVATION OF 
THE WILD LIFE OF CANADA 



BY 
C. GORDON HEWITT, D.Sc. 

DOMINION ENTOMOLOGIST AND CONSULTING ZOOLOGIST 



WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS 



NEW YORK 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 

1921 






Copyright, 1921, by 
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 



SEP «3i^^< 



THE SCRIBNER PRESS 



©C!.A622773 

I 



••v^t 



PREFACE 

When Gordon Hewitt came to Ottawa in the fall of 1909 
to enter upon his duties as Dominion Entomologist, he fully 
expected to return to Manchester University in a year or 
so, there to continue his researches in entomology and his 
lectures in zoology; but the call of Canada was not to be 
ignored: he found work for a giant to do and he bent him- 
self to his task. 

Ten years of life in office were allowed him, and, during 
that time, he had the satisfaction of developing the Do- 
minion Entomological Service from a small division, at- 
tached to the Experimental Farm, to a separate branch of 
the Department of Agriculture, with four divisions at Ot- 
tawa, and twelve laboratories throughout Canada, organ- 
ized for the purpose of watching, combating and forestall- 
ing insect injury to forests and crops. Quarantine stations 
were also established to prevent the importation of foreign 
pests. For this work, trained, scientific men were required, 
and here his enviable talent for selecting the right man for 
the place, and in using his powers to the full stood him in 
good stead. Indeed, the relation that existed between my 
husband and his associates was like that which animates 
a group of friends, where each one gives the best that is in 
him and looks for the best in others — a bright record in 
Civil Service history of loyalty and disinterestedness. Com- 
menting on his remarkable faculty of choosing his associ- 
ates and attaching them to himself and his schemes. Doctor 
W. M. Wlieeler wrote: ''The truly remarkable record of de- 
velopment and public service exhibited by Doctor Hewitt's 
department during the decade of his administration was 
clearly due to the unusual abilities of the man. Combin- 



vi PREFACE 

ing a thorough training in zoology with rare gifts as an in- 
vestigator, executive talent of a high order, and sympa- 
thetic insight into the achievements of other workers, not 
only in entomology, but in biology generally, he could not 
fail to secure the affection, as well as the confidence and 
admiration of all the men, and particularly the young men, 
whom he had chosen as aids in building up his department." * 

In 1916 he was offered and accepted the position of Con- 
sulting Zoologist. His duties were thus enlarged, and his 
sphere of useful activity appreciably increased. For the 
new work he was especially fitted, as Doctor Wm. T. 
Hornaday says: "His broad mind reached out, and grasped 
the whole invertebrate fauna of the vast region embraced 
in the Canadian Dominion." f His sphere of influence 
extended beyond the Dominion, again quoting Doctor 
Wheeler: "Realizing that very many of the native and in- 
troduced animals, and the economic problems to which 
they give rise, are identical in Canada and the northern 
United States, he took an actively constructive part in all 
deliberations, wherever men were assembled in either of the 
sister commonwealths, to discuss practical matters relat- 
ing to our insects, birds, and mammals," and by accepting 
the position of Canadian representative on the International 
Commission for the Protection of Nature his work became 
world-wide. 

Inspired by Doctor Hornaday, and encouraged by Mr. 
James White, he commenced to write this book, which oc- 
cupied much of his spare time during the last four years of 
his life. As he wrote the book at home in the evenings, I 
became familiar with it, chapter by chapter, for he liked to 
read aloud what he had written; also, before writing, he 
was eager to discuss present needs and future developments. 
Evening after evening in his library, easy chairs on either 

* Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. XIII, no. 2. 

t The statement of the Permanent Wild Life Protection Fund, vol. III. 



PREFACE vii 

side of the fire, a low table beside him, holding paper, ref- 
erence books, and the indispensable tin of "John Cotton," 
while snowstorms might rage without, in imagination he 
was able to roam with the bison or musk-ox on the sunny 
plains, to climb the peaks with the mountain goat, or to 
hear the songs of birds in sanctuaries made safe by his ef- 
fort. The facts and conclusions herein contained were 
gathered and matured throughout days of action, research, 
and travel, when he followed the pressing needs of the 
country, and attacked problems as they presented them- 
selves, never resting until they were solved, and then, un- 
satisfied, merely using success as a stimulant to greater 
effort. 

Pages could be written of his work in preparing and in 
drafting what is now known as the Northwest Game Act, 
and, after the biU was introduced in Parliament, of his 
watchful support of the measure until all opposition was 
overcome and it became law. The Migratory Birds Treaty 
also tested his powers; mternational and interprovincial 
arrangements and compromises had to be made, and the 
successful completion of this important treaty bears wit- 
ness to his courage and diplomacy. During these and 
other less important negotiations, he would travel many 
miles for a single interview ; he was thankful when the cause, 
supported and enforced by his persuasive powers, won the 
day, and he was willing to try again when they failed. 
How rarely they failed ! The appeal of his winning person- 
ality and his earnest desire to help usually carried convic- 
tion. 

As an example of his sincerity, and of his willingness to 
carry out whatever he asked others to do, before publicly 
advocating individual and community effort in wild life 
conservation, he hung nesting-boxes in the trees, and sup- 
plied an original water bath in his own garden. Little 
homes for bumble-bees were carefully tucked under the 



viii PREFACE 

lilac hedges and berry-bearing shrubs were planted. The 
following spring he had the reward of being able to count 
fifteen nests and the visits of thirty-four species of birds. 

His love of nature was not merely sentimental or theo- 
retical. He was an enthusiastic, practical gardener — he 
liked to dig in the soil and to spread manure. He planted 
with the precision and skill of an artist ; he sowed seeds with 
equal zest; and, after a rain, he loved to fork around, and 
thus to make each bulb, perennial, or vegetable "comfort- 
able." Nor were the poetical accompaniments of the craft 
ever absent. Morning and evening — before his office hours 
and after — he walked around the garden, bathing himself 
in greenness, and in the odour of lilacs, roses, and new- 
mown grass. Then it was he spoke to every flower and 
bird, no matter how small or how shy, and held converse 
with the chipmunks and squirrels, who held a safe tenure 
within the garden precincts. 

After his immediate community was convinced of the 
need of bird conservation, and Rockliffe Park and the Ex- 
perimental Farm became sanctuaries, he went farther 
afield: in every province in the Dominion he addressed 
meetings on the subject of the conservation of our wild 
life. 

This is but a short record of the ideals which led to the 
making of this book, and of the character of him who 
wrote it. A great deal might be said by me in faithful 
and thankful acknowledgment of that character, but which 
would, in the end, seem to me cold and inadequate. I can, 
therefore, only take refuge in the words of another, one who 
valued him level with his deserts, who truly recognized his 
wonderful gifts, and who appreciated the way in which 
they were ever employed for the brightening of this world. 
I quote from the memoir by his friend, Duncan Campbell 
Scott, in the proceedings of the Royal Society of Canada: 

"His death was tragic in its suddenness. He had at- 



PREFACE ix 

tended the meetings of the Commission of Conservation, 
at Montreal, on February 19 and 20, at which he pre- 
sented an important paper on -Fur-bearing Animals, Their 
Economic Significance and Future.' 

"Soon after his return to Ottawa, on the 20th, he was 
taken seriously ill with influenza; this soon developed into 
pleural pneumonia, and he died about 11 p. m., on Febru- 
ary 29, 1920. 

"He seemed to be on the threshold of a long career, in 
which added years would bring even greater success, and 
would fulfil all that he was destined to accomplish. His 
gifts were varied, and his sympathies deep and general. 
He touched life at so many points that one cannot think 
that his interest ever flagged. His knowledge and apprecia- 
tion of the arts and belles lettres were finely balanced by a 
warm love of nature, and this led him into enthusiasms for 
our wild life. His ideal habitation was always surrounded 
by a garden, and every foot of soil was made to yield 
either use or beauty. There was in all his work a rare 
combination of earnestness, with lightness of touch. Highly 
characteristic, too, was a fine sense of humour, which kept 
all things in their proper relation. His personality was of 
that even bearing that finds the best in all men, and gives 
duly the best in itself. Even his casual acquaintances had 
sorrow when he died. To those who knew him well there 
will remain a deep regret; to those who received fully the 
intimate charm of his personality in familiar intercourse 
there cannot be any mitigation of his loss, for he was a 
peerless friend." 

Elizabeth Hewitt. 

RocKLiFFE Park, Ottawa. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

In the preparation of this book I have been encouraged 
by the assistance, so wilHngly given, of many of my col- 
leagues and friends who have furnished data or have other- 
wise helped me in my endeavour to make the volume both 
accurate and informative. It would be impossible to men- 
tion every one to whom I am indebted for assistance, but 
I should like to express here my grateful appreciation of 
the assistance of the following: Many of my colleagues 
in the government service, particularly Mr. James White, 
Assistant to Chairman, Commission of Conservation; Mr. 
J. B. Harkin, Commissioner of Dominion Parks, and Doc- 
tor R. M. Anderson and other members of the staff of the 
Geological Survey; the officers in charge of the game-pro- 
tective service of the various provinces, and Mr. F. Ker- 
mode. Director of the Provincial Museum, Victoria, B. C; 
Doctor Henry Fairfield Osborn, President of the American 
Museum of Natural History; Mr. E. W. Nelson, Chief of 
the United States Biological Survey; Doctor W. T. Horna- 
day, Director of the New York Zoological Gardens, the 
staunch defender of the wild life of this continent, who 
has been a constant source of help and encouragement; 
Mr. Charles Sheldon; and many others. The courtesy of 
Rudyard Kipling, in giving permission to use the quotation 
from his poem, "The Feet of the Young Men," is hereby 
acknowledged. 

C. G. H. 



CONTENTS 

PTER 

I. Introduction 



II. The Value of Wild Life to the Nation . . 7 

UTILIZATION OF NON-AGRICULTURAL LANDS. DEER AS A MEAT 
SUPPLY. DEVELOPMENT OF NORTHWESTERN TERRITORIES. 
BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU AS SOURCE OF MEAT AND CLOTH- 
ING. RELATION OF NATIVES TO WILD LIFE. RECREATIVE 
VALUE OF WILD LIFE. 

III. The Extermination of Wild Life .... 17 

MAIN CAUSES OF EXTERMINATION. DANGER IN NUMBERS. 
THE VARIOUS ADVERSE FACTORS. 

IV. The Game Animals of Canada 26 

THE WAPITI, OR ELK. DEER. THE WHITE-TAILED DEER. THE 
MULE DEER. COLUMBIAN BLACK-TAILED DEER. MOOSE. THE 
BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU. THE WOODLAND CARIBOU AND 
RELATED SPECIES. ANTELOPE. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP. 
THE BLACK MOUNTAIN SHEEP. DALL's MOUNTAIN SHEEP. 
THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT. THE MUSK-OX. BEARS. THE 
POLAR BEAR. GRIZZLY BEAR. THE BARREN-GROUND GRIZZLY 
BEAR. BLACK BEAR. KERMODE's WHITE BEAR. PROTECTION 
OF BEARS. 

V. The Buffalo or Bison (Its Present, Past, and 

Future) 113 

EARLY DISTRIBUTION IN CANADA. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE 
BUFFALO. THE WILD OR WOOD BISON. THE PRESENT STATE 
OF THE BUFFALO IN CANADA. THE FUTURE OF THE BUFFALO 
IN CANADA. DOMESTICATION. CROSS-BREEDING WITH DO- 
MESTIC CATTLE. 

VI. The Game Birds and Larger Non-Game Birds 

OF Canada 143 

SWANS. GEESE. DUCKS. CRANES. SHORE-BIRDS, OR WAD- 
ERS. BOB-WHITE, OR QUAIL. GROUSE. 

xiii 



xiv CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII. Birds in Relation to Agriculture .... 166 

ECONOMIC VALUE. FEEDING HABITS OF CHIEF GROUPS. 
LOCAL ABUNDANCE OF BIRDS. METHODS OF PROTECTION 
AND ENCOURAGEMENT. PROVISION OF NESTING FACILITIES. 
NESTING-BOXES OR BIRD-HOUSES. THE DESTRUCTION OF 
ENEMIES. PROVISION OF FRUIT-BEARING TREES AND 
SHRUBS. LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS BEARING FRUITS 
ATTRACTIVE TO BIRDS. THE PROVISION OF OTHER FORMS 
OF FOOD AND OF WATER. BIRD SANCTUARIES. 



VIII. The Enemies of Wild Life and the Control of 

Predatory Animals 193 

WOLVES. COYOTE. COUGAR. THE WOLF AND COYOTE 
PROBLEM AS AFFECTING LIVE-STOCK INTERESTS. THE NE- 
CESSITY OF ORGANIZED CONTROL BY HUNTING AND TRAP- 
PING. CONTROL OF PREDATORY ANIMALS IN THE UNITED 
STATES. LESSER PREDATORY MAMMALS. PREDATORY BIRDS. 



IX. The Periodic Fluctuations of our Fur-Bearing 

Animals 213 

' VARYING HARE OR RABBIT. LYNX. FOXES. WOLVES. 
MARTEN. FISHER. MINK. SKUNK. MUSKRAT. CONCLU- 
SIONS. 



X. Reserves for Game and Wild Life in Canada 235 

THE NATIONAL PARKS. JASPER PARK. THE ROCKY MOUN- 
TAINS PARK. WATERTON LAKES PARK. ELK ISLAND PARK. 
BUFFALO PARK. ANTELOPE PARK. YOHO PARK. GLACIER 
PARK. REVELSTOKE PARK. POINT PELEE NATIONAL PARK. 
PROVINCIAL RESERVES FOR GAME AND WILD LIFE. NEW 
BRUNSWICK GAME RESERVE. GA8PESIAN FOREST, FISH, 
AND GAME PRESERVE. TREMBLING MOUNTAIN PARK. 
LAURENTIDES NATIONAL PARK. ALGONQUIN PARK. QUETICO 
FOREST RESERVE. RONDEAU PROVINCIAL PARK. PROVIN- 
CIAL GAME RESERVES IN MANITOBA. PROVINCIAL GAME 
RESERVES IN SASKATCHEWAN. GAME RESERVES IN AL- 
BERTA. ELK RIVER RESERVE. YALAKOM GAME RESERVE. 
STRATHCONA PARK. MOUNT ROBSON PARK. THE CLEAR- 
WATER AND SMOKY RIVERS RESERVE. SPECIAL RESERVE 
FOR MOUNTAIN SHEEP. SUMMARY OF GAME RESERVES IN 
CANADA. PROPOSED GAME RESERVE FOR NOVA SCOTIA. 



CONTENTS XV 

:hapter paoe 

XL The Protection of Game and Wild Life by the 

Dominion Government 258 

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES. A PROPOSAL FOR THE NATIONAL 
OWNERSHIP OF THE FUR RESOURCES OF THE NORTHWEST 
TERRITORIES. THE YUKON TERRITORY. THE MIGRATORY 
BIRDS CONVENTION. DOMINION PARKS ACT. 

XII. A Review of Provincial Game Legislation . 277 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. NOVA SCOTIA. NEW BRUNSWICK. 
QUEBEC. ONTARIO. MANITOBA. SASKATCHEWAN. AL- 
BERTA. BRITISH COLUMBIA. 

XIII. Individual and Community Effort in the Con- 
servation OF Wild Life 286 

EDUCATION. PRIVATE WILD-LIFE SANCTUARIES AND GAME 
RESERVES. FARMERS AND GAME PROTECTION. CLUBS. 
CIVIC GAME RESERVES. GAME PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATIONS. 
THE ATTITUDE OF THE SPORTSMAN. THE SPORTSMAN's CODE 
OF ETHICS. 

XIV. Government Reserves for the Protection of 

Birds 300 

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA. BIRD RESERVATIONS IN 
THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE. RESERVE FOR GEESE IN NOVA 
SCOTIA. 

XV. The Utilization by Domestication of our Larger 

Native Ruminating Mammals 310 

PROPOSED DOMESTICATION OF THE MUSK-OX. REINDEER 
IN ALASKA. THE USE OF REINDEER IN CANADA. FIRST AT- 
TEMPT TO INTRODUCE REINDEER INTO THE NORTHWEST 
TERRITORIES. 

XVI. The Sale of Game 331 

Index 335 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Vapiti Frontispiece 

PLATES 

PLATE FACING PAGE 

I. Canadian birds which have been exterminated within 

recent years and are now extinct 20 

II. ]\Ioose 46 

Woodland Caribou . 46 

III. Barren-Ground Caribou 58 

Musk-Ox 58 

IV. Osborn's Mountain Caribou in the Rocky Mountains, 

about fifteen miles northwest of Mount Sir Alexander 62 

Herd of captive Musk-Oxen in New York Zoological Park 62 

V. A herd of Barren-Ground Caribou on shore of Carey Lake, 

Dubawnt River, Mackenzie District, N. W. T. . . . 66 

VL Musk-Oxen on Ellesmere Island 70 

VII. Rocky Mountain Sheep {Ovis canadensis) 76 

White Mountain Sheep {Ovis dalli) 76 

VIII. Illustrating distribution of Mountain Sheep in areas in- 
dicated on the map 82 

IX. Polar Bear 102 

Black Bear, showing colour phases 102 

Rocky Mountain Goat 102 

X. Buffalo bones photographed by Mr. Hugh Lumsden, 

C. E., August 9, 1890 114 

XI. Cree Indians impounding Bison 118 

Still-hunting Bison 118 

xvii 



XVUl 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATE 

XXL 



FACING PAGE 



Wood Bison 



126 



XIII. Buffalo in barnyard, Elk Island Park, Alberta, during 

winter, showing possibilities of domestication . . . 136 
Antelopes: two males, two young (male and female), born 
in captivity, and adult female, in the private reserve 
of R. Lloyd, Davidson, Saskatchewan 136 

XIV. Fence around the Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alberta . 140 
Buffalo in the Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alberta . . 140 

XV. Diagrammatic representation of the economic status of 

some of our commoner birds 168 

XVI. Arctic Fox 172 

Coyotes attacking Sheep in Kamloops district of British 

Columbia 172 

Rocky Mountain Goat: female with young .... 172 

Nest of Pacific Eider Duck (Swnateria v.-nigra) ; Dolphin 

and Union Strait, Arctic Ocean 172 

Ptarmigan in the Yukon Territory 172 

XVII. Wild Ducks on United States Government Reserve . . 190 
Portion of exhibition of bird-houses made by the boys in 
one of the Ottawa public schools in a competition or- 
ganized by the Ottawa Humane Society in 1917 . . 190 

XVIII. Lac La Peche, Quebec, showing the headquarters and 
southern portion of the hunting-grounds of the Lau- 

rentian Club 246 

Laurentides Park, Quebec. One of the entrances to the 
park at the junction of the Jacques Cartier and Cache 
Rivers 246 

XIX. Western bird reserves 266 

XX. Dead Gannets on beach near Perce, Gaspe, Quebec . . 288 
Gannets nesting on the cliffs of Bonaventure Island, Gaspe 288 
Sea-bird group in American Museum of Natural History, 

representing a section of Bird Rock in the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence 288 

XXI. Bird reserves in the Gulf of St. Lawrence 302 



ILLUSTRATIONS xix 

PLATE FACING PAGE 

XXII. White Pelican rookery, Mountain Portage, Slave River, 

Northern Alberta 308 

Notice-board on Saskatchewan Provincial Game Refuge . 308 
Canada Geese on artificial pond in the Miner Sanctuary, 

Essex County, Ontario 308 

Aluminum tag used by Mr. Miner to mark wild geese and 

ducks for purposes of determining migration . . . 308 

XXIII. Reindeer herds in Alaska 320 



TEXT FIGURES 

FIGURE PAGE 

I. Elk-horn Pyramid 27 

II. Antlers of White-tailed and Mule Deer 38 

III. Tails of White-tailed, Mule, and Columbia Black-tailed Deer 43 

IV. Constructional details of a bird-house 179 

MAPS 

PAGE 

Distribution of the larger mammals of North America .... 3 

Present and past range of the Wapiti or Elk in Canada ... 29 

Present range of the Barren-Ground Caribou in Canada ... 57 

Distribution of the Black Mountain Sheep, White Mountain Sheep, 
and intermediate colour grades in Canada . 82 

Distribution of the Musk-Ox in Canada 91 

Illustrating the disappearance of the Bison 116 

Range of Wood Bison 132 

Game and bird reserves in Eastern Canada . between pages 244 and 245 

Game and bird reserves in Manitoba and Saskatchewan 

between pages 250 and 251 

Game and bird reserves in Alberta and British Columbia 

between pages 252 and 253 



XX ILLUSTRATIONS 



CHARTS 

BASED ON THE FUR RETURNS OF THE HUDSOn's BAY COMPANY RECEIVED 
THROUGH THE COURTESY OF THE FUR COMMISSION 

CHAET PAGE 

I. Periodic fluctuations of Rabbit, Lynx, and Wolverene in 

Canada 217 

II. Periodic fluctuations of Red, Cross, Black and White Fox in 

Canada 221 

III. Periodic fluctuations of Wolf, Marten, and Fisher in Canada 224 

IV. Periodic fluctuations of Mink, Otter, and Skunk in Canada . 231 

V. Periodic fluctuations of Black Bear, Raccoon, and Beaver in 

Canada 233 



THE CONSERVATION OF 
THE WILD LIFE OF CANADA 



THE CONSERVATION OF THE 
WILD LIFE OF CANADA 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

Canada is the home and refuge of the most important 
and desirable wild animals of this continent. The southern 
portion of that wonderfully rich and interesting North 
American fauna that ever3rwhere greeted the early explor- 
ers and settlers in the United States has melted away be- 
fore the advancing tide of settlement like snow, and only 
in the inaccessible places and in a few protected spots has 
the harried remnant found greater security and an irre- 
trievable loss been prevented. The northern part of the 
continent was less tempting to the earlier settlers and more 
hospitable to its native wild life. The impenetrable for- 
ests, trackless wilderness, and mountains of Canada afforded 
a sanctuary to the greater part of the wild life of the conti- 
nent, and retarded settlement has proved its salvation. 
The people of the United States now mourn the loss of 
their wild life and are endeavouring to rescue the remnant 
from complete extermination, realizing how great an asset 
it is to the country and the significance of its depletion. 
A young country enjoys the advantage of being able to 
profit by the mistakes of older countries. It lies within 
our power to preserve for ourselves, but more particularly 
for posterity for whom we hold it in trust, the wild life of 
this country. It rests with us to prove that the advance 
of civilization into the more remote sections of Canada does 

1 



2 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

not imply the total destruction of the wild life, but that 
civilization in its true sense signifies the elimination of the 
spirit of barbarism and the introduction of an enlightened 
attitude. 

The problems, therefore, confronting us involve a knowl- 
edge of the following questions : Of what does our wild life 
consist; what is its value; what are the factors that are 
responsible for its reduction and ultimate extermination; 
what steps are we taking to conserve it, and how can we 
improve on present methods with a view to conserving a 
valuable natural resource, the constituent parts of which 
carmot be replaced once they are lost? In the succeeding 
chapters these questions will be considered. It is felt that 
a presentation and discussion of the status of the wild life 
of Canada will afford the best means of securing that wide 
sympathy of the people throughout the Dominion that is 
essential to the success of any measures that have already 
been taken or may be adopted in the future with the ob- 
ject of conserving this resource. While in this matter of 
wild-life conservation we have much to regret in the past, 
we have reason to be proud of the efforts that we are now 
making to remedy past mistakes, and a more general reali- 
zation of our opportunities to improve our national life and 
welfare through these means will undoubtedly lead to 
further efforts. It is desirable that, before proceeding 
further, the classes of animals to be considered in the in- 
quiry should be specified. The term ''wild life" naturally 
includes all the members of our native Canadian fauna, but 
it is obvious that the term must be restricted for our present 
purposes for the sake of adequate treatment and to avoid 
digressions into well-recognized groups of our fauna. Strictly 
speaking, it would include the game, non-game, and fur- 
bearing mammals, the game and non-game birds, the fishes 
and other members of our fauna. The conservation of our 
fishes will not be considered here; it has been the subject of 



4 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

discussion by the Commission of Conservation in other re- 
ports. In its report on "Fur Farming in Canada" the 
Commission has presented a fairly complete statement re- 
garding the fur-bearing mammals of the country, and there 
is no necessity to duplicate the facts so presented. For 
that reason the fur-bearing mammals will not be considered 
at length, but only in so far as their conservation in the 
wild state necessarily constitutes an important aspect of 
the general problem of wild-life conservation. In this ac- 
count it is proposed to deal in particular with the larger 
wild mammals, many of which are commonly included un- 
der the head of ''big game," and the birds of Canada, inas- 
much as these animals constitute that portion of our native 
fauna that is in the greatest need of adequate protection 
with a view to preventing the extermination that will in- 
evitably follow failure on our part to provide it. 

Nature has laid on the shoulders of the Canadian people 
an obligation, and at the same time an opportunity, of a 
peculiar character in so far as the preservation of the wild 
life, not of this hemisphere alone but of the whole world, 
is concerned. In the gradual evolution of the great land 
masses of the earth's surface it has come about that by its 
geographical situation and physical characteristics the 
greater part of Canadian territory constitutes a distinct 
faunal region, differing from other regions of the world by 
reason of the fact that it contains certain species of animals 
not found elsewhere. In some cases these animals are re- 
lated to forms in other regions of the world; in other cases 
they are distinct and unrelated. In the Canadian region, 
to mention a few of the larger forms of wild life, we find 
the moose (Alces machlis), which is related to the elk* of 

* It is unfortunate that the word elk has come to be used in North America 
as an alternate name for the wapiti. As popular names must naturally be 
used for these animals, it seems very desirable to confine the name elk to 
the European Alces or moose, and use the Shawnee name, wapiti, for Cervus 
canadensis. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

northern Europe and Asia; the wapiti {Cervus canadensis), 
which is closely allied to the red deer of the old world, and 
the caribou {Rangifer species), which very closely resembles 
the reindeer of northern Europe. The bison or buffalo is 
related to the European bison, which has suffered a serious 
reduction in numbers and is now confined to the primaeval 
forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Cau- 
casus, where it is artificially preserved.* The mountain- 
sheep (Ovis species), so characteristic of our Western moun- 
tains, are well represented in the old world, the centre of 
their habitat being the immense mountain ranges of Cen- 
tral Asia. The musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) is an animal 
allied to the sheep family, that is particularly distinctive of 
our region of the world, ranging as it does over the barren 
grounds and arctic regions of the north and eastward to 
Greenland. The Rocky Mountain goat {Oreamnos mon- 
tanus and its sub-species) is found only in the Rocky Moun- 
tains. Finally, the most interesting of all our mammals is 
the prong-buck or antelope {Antilocapra americana), which 
forms by itself a distinctive family of the ungulate or 
hoofed animals. It is entirely confined to a region com- 
prising a portion of the Prairie Provinces and the Western 
States. While it is allied in certain respects to the ante- 
lopes of the old world, it is unique among all hollow-horned 
ruminants by reason of the fact that, like the members of 
the deer family, it sheds its horns every year. 

* According to Dr. Theodor G. Ahrens, "The Present Status of the Euro- 
pean Bison or Wisent," Journal of Mammalogy, vol. 2, no. 2, May, 1921, 
pp. 58-62, the Lithuanian herd nunribered 170 or 180 in 1918, but after the 
German revolution it seems that all or nearly all the remaining bison were 
shot by the inhabitants and the retiring German soldiers, among whom disci- 
pline had been undermined by the revolution. Later the war between Po- 
land and Russia passed over the region. Since the Russian revolution the 
Kuban Cossacks have demanded the return of their old hunting grounds in 
the Caucasus, so that extermination of the bison in that region is also to be 
feared. Besides the few introduced specimens still extant in Pless and possi- 
bly in Ascania Nova there remain a few specimens in zoological gardens. 
Summing up, he concludes that the extinction of the species is imminent. 
— R. M. A. 



6 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Certain of the foregoing animals extend their range south- 
ward into the United States, but Canada is their natural 
habitat and in Canada they attain their maximum devel- 
opment, apart from the fact that in the United States 
they have been seriously reduced in many instances. 

Our responsibilities in the matter of the conservation of 
these animals are therefore unmistakably clear. It is our 
bounden duty to prevent the extermination of all but the 
noxious species on the higher grounds of our obligations to 
the people of other countries, as guardians of our portion 
of the wild life of the world, and to future Canadians, the 
heu's of a region so richly endowed. 



CHAPTER II 

THE VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 

In order to secure the interest and active support of the 
people of Canada in the conservation of our wild Hfe, it is 
necessary at the outset to indicate as clearly as possible 
the economic significance of such measures as are now being 
taken and of those that should be adopted with a view to 
the preservation of our native animals. A consideration of 
this aspect is not rendered necessary by any lack of appre- 
ciation on the part of Canadians generally as to their moral 
obligations in this matter or because reasons of sentiment 
carry no weight. It is rendered necessary largely on ac- 
count of the rapid opening up and development of the coun- 
try, and because such development comes into direct con- 
flict with the ability of many important forms of our wild 
life to survive. 

Utilization of N on- Agricultural Lands. — The basic indus- 
try of Canada is agriculture, and the extension of this in- 
dustry involves the bringing under cultivation of new areas 
of land which were formerly the home of our wild life. 
Therefore, in order to justify on economic grounds the con- 
servation of our wild life its economic value as compared 
with agriculture in the first place must be set forth. 

Not all lands are suitable for agriculture. Even in the 
best agricultural sections of the country areas unsuited to 
agriculture occur. In some cases, as will be shown later, 
such areas have been set apart as forest reserves; in other 
cases a struggling population endeavours to eke out a 
meagre existence on the sparse products of the unfertile 
soil. The problem of the best method of dealing with such 

7 



8 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

non-agricultural lands has already received some considera- 
tion by our governments. In the future it will demand 
more attention than we have hitherto thought necessary. 
And it is here primarily that the practical application of 
the principles of wild-life conservation should receive seri- 
ous attention, for it will afford one of the most important 
methods by which the unproductive or scarcely productive 
areas can be rendered productive. However, it is of the 
gravest importance to remember this, that while the ques- 
tion as to the utilization of such lands is under considera- 
tion we do not permit the means whereby their productive- 
ness can be secured, namely through the taking advantage 
of the presence of our wild life, that is, by the utilization of 
our natural resources, to disappear through our neglect to 
appreciate at the present time their potential value to the 
community at large. 

Deer as a Meat Supply. — One of the most serious prob- 
lems of the present day is the gradually increasing cost of 
food, particularly meat. Every effort is being made to 
increase mixed farming and to encourage the live-stock in- 
dustry. And yet a potential source of meat is left to the 
mercy of sportsmen or gunners and their dogs. I refer to 
our native deer, and particularly to the white-tailed deer 
which frequents the Canadian woods and forests east of the 
Rocky Mountains. Here is an excellent meat animal which 
is hardy, and with proper protection, by which is meant 
the prohibition of unwarranted slaughter, will increase 
rapidly in numbers. There are hundreds of square miles 
of land unsuited to agriculture, and forest land that might 
be producing not only timber but meat also, and in every 
way such production would be profitable. 

That such an idea is not theoretical but eminently prac- 
tical is demonstrated by the experience of the State of 
Vermont. In common with the adjoining States the peo- 
ple in Vermont some years ago had reduced the numbers of 



VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 9 

white-tailed deer, formerly so abundant, to the verge of 
practical extermination. So far as could be ascertained the 
species was practically extinct in Vermont by 1870. In 1875 
thirteen white-tailed deer, comprising six bucks and seven 
does, were procured by a number of sportsmen of Rutland, 
Vt., and liberated in the forests adjoining that city. For 
twenty-three years none were killed, except a few that were 
illegally shot. They increased in numbers and were suffi- 
ciently abundant by 1897 to permit the establishment of a 
short open season, when 150 were shot. Their increase 
during subsequent years is indicated by the figures given 
by Hornaday.* '^n 1901, 211 were killed; in 1902, 561; 
m 1905, 791; in 1907, 1,600; in 1908, 2,208, and in 1909 
the grand total was 5,261. For the year last mentioned, 
1909, the average weight of the deer killed was 155 pounds 
each, which for some reason was far below all preceding 
years, and suggests an error. f The total weight of venison 
taken was 716,358 pounds. Computed at the lowest rea- 
sonable valuation, twelve cents per pound, the total value 
for 1909 would be S85,962." 

As the deer gradually spread over the State they did 
some damage to agricultural crops, and it was wisely de- 
cided to compensate the farmers for such damages. Such 
a practice is followed in England in the case of damage in- 
flicted by foxes which are preserved for hunting purposes. 
During the two years, 1908 and 1909, the total amount 
paid in damages was $4,865.98, and the value of the total 
number of deer legally killed during those two years was 
$107,790, which indicates the soundness of the policy of 
indemnification. 

The example of Vermont is a valuable object-lesson. 
There is no reason why a similar policy should not be 

* "Wild Life Conservation," p. 106. 

t In the years 1905 to 1908 the average weights ranged from 196 to 207 
pounds. 



10 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

adopted throughout eastern Canada, where we have large 
areas that are unproductive so far as the food supply is con- 
cerned and where deer will thrive abundantly, as it con- 
stitutes their native home. On economic grounds the pos- 
sibilities of the wild meat supply should receive the serious 
consideration of the provincial governments and of the 
people. We cannot afford to neglect so valuable an oppor- 
tunity. It involves nothing more than a sane and judicious 
protective policy, adequately extended and applied. It 
would mean that our non-agricultural areas would be made 
productive and our forest areas more productive. 

Development of Northwestern Territories. — How often has 
our pride in the possession of so enormous an area as Can- 
ada comprises been touched to the quick by the reminder 
that our vast undeveloped Northv/est Territories and barren 
lands are practically unproductive, if we leave out of con- 
sideration the fur trade, which has seriously diminished. 
But there is no reason for depression. On the contrary 
there is every ground for confidence in the potentialities of 
our northern territories and their profitable development, 
provided we will adopt the correct attitude towards the 
conservation of the wild life of those territories. The eco- 
nomic development of northern Canada is dependent upon 
the proper conservation of the wild life of that section of 
the Dominion. If adequate measures are adopted to con- 
serve upon proper lines the game and fur-bearing animals of 
those portions of the Northwest Territories unsuited to agri- 
culture, and such portions constitute by far the greater 
part, there is no reason why the whole of that area should 
not be productive and contribute to the wealth of the coun- 
try. The possession of such territories would become a 
matter of pride rather than of reproach. 

How is it possible to regard the countless numbers of 
caribou that inhabit those regions, and to which fuller refer- 
ence will be made later, except as an inestimable food sup- 



VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 11 

ply? In view of the fact that the fur-bearing animals of 
the north furnish not only luxuries but also necessities, what 
greater opportunity could we have of establishing the fur- 
bearing industry on a sound, practical basis? It was not 
without reason that furs constituted the first lure that at- 
tracted the outside world to Canada. This country con- 
tained the greatest variety of valuable fur-bearing animals, 
for the possession of which men risked everything, includ- 
ing their own lives. Now our agricultural lands constitute 
that lure, but the remnant of those fur-bearing animals is 
still with us. Conservation of our natural resources is 
taking the place of exploitation. We should apply the doc- 
trine to the fur-bearing animals and thus secure their full 
value to the community. And it cannot be stated too often 
that conservation means the protection of natural resources 
from injudicious exploitation and their provident utiliza- 
tion. Our northern territories, under proper administra- 
tion, could become not only a valuable source of food supply, 
but also one of the chief fur-producing areas of the world. 

The mineral wealth in our northern territories constitutes 
a valuable natural resource awaiting development, and it 
should be remembered that such development will be ren- 
dered more possible by the presence of an adequate food 
supply such as I have mentioned, which fact indicates an- 
other economic aspect of this problem. 

Barren-ground Caribou as Source of Meat and Clothing. — 
The development of a "wild" food supply, by which I mean 
the caribou in our northern territories from the Labrador 
coast to the Yukon, would fulfil three objects: First, it 
would supplement the meat supply from domesticated 
animals and add to the area of productive land in the coun- 
try. Caribou furnishes one of the finest of meats, and under 
proper protection and adequate supervision there is no 
reason why we should not in the future develop a caribou 
meat industry, and export frozen caribou from the north. 



12 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Secondly, it would furnish an important means of subsis- 
tence to those whose work carried them into those regions 
where transportation and food supplies constitute a serious 
problem. If reindeer could be employed for hauling pur- 
poses they would prove superior to dogs, owing to their abil- 
ity to find food available, such as the northern mosses and 
lichens, whereas the food question in the case of dog trans- 
port is always a serious one. Thirdly, the presence of such 
a food supply would enable us to keep those regions pop- 
ulated to a greater degree than would be otherwise possible, 
thus facilitating the task of developing those areas to the 
extent that their valuable natural resources, particularly 
minerals, render desirable. The musk-ox is also an animal 
of undoubted potential value in the development of our 
northern and arctic territories, and its utilization is dis- 
cussed in later chapters. 

Relation of Natives to Wild Life. — The necessity of a na- 
tive food supply in northern Canada demands serious con- 
sideration. Among the important aids at the present time 
in the utilization and development of the northern terri- 
tories are their natural inhabitants, the Indians, and, to a 
lesser degree, the Eskimos. Further, our moral obligations 
to the Indians render it necessary that means shall be taken 
to ensure them an adequate food supply and a potential 
source of revenue. This opens up the large question of 
the relation of the Indians to wild-life conservation to which 
further reference will be made later. But it cannot be too 
often remarked that the Indian, when unspoiled by white 
men, is traditionally a conserver of wild life, that is, he 
uses it but does not exterminate it. The Indians and the 
Eskimos knew what the results would be if they conducted 
a policy of extermination, and they took common-sense 
precautions accordingly. The Indians had their traditional 
hunting-grounds, and under the guidance of the recognized 
trading companies, particularly the Hudson's Bay Company, 



I 



VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 13 

they were careful not to exterminate in any area the fur- 
bearing or game animals. This policy continued until the 
advent of the independent fur trader — the ''free trader" 
and hunter — who observed no law and whose whole aim 
was to secure the greatest quantity of furs by the quickest 
method regardless of the future. The effect of men of this 
t>T)e on the attitude of the Indian towards wild life was 
what one might expect, but we cannot hold the latter en- 
tirely responsible for his abandonment of his former habits. 
The Indian will conserve wild life if he believes that it is 
to his advantage to do so. He is not so ''red in tooth and 
claw" as many of those who are frequently accustomed to 
speak ill of him. His primitive weapons were playthings 
compared with the modern sporting rifles. The wild life 
constituted his natural means of subsistence and, with the 
advent of the trading companies, of revenue. In his primi- 
tive state he was merely a unit in that balance of nature 
that is so marvellously adjusted that while the abundance 
of species of animals rises and falls extermination does not 
follow the preying of one species of animal upon another. 
For such changes as have been brought about in the Indian's 
attitude he is not to blame, and the foregoing facts are set 
forth with a view to removing prejudice in the minds of 
those who have not seriously considered the rights of the 
Indians in this matter. Our obligations to them in those 
areas where tribes still exist who have always lived on the 
wild life that still constitutes a means of subsistence, cannot 
be overlooked or neglected in developing those regions. 

Recreative Value of Wild Life. — When we come to con- 
sider the recreative value of our wild life we touch an aspect 
of wild-life conservation that is as universal in its appeal 
to the sentiments of Canadians as it is inestimable in its 
value to the nation. Few men there are who never feel 
or respond to the call of the open air, the lure of the wild; 
and to all those who cast aside the daily task and seek re- 



14 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

freshment on mountain or prairie, in the bush or by lake 
or stream our wild life most commonly serves as the ob- 
ject they have in view. 

Kipling has expressed the call of the wild in his ''The 
Feet of the Young Men," and all Canadian sportsmen re- 
main young: 

So for one the wet sail arching through the rainbow round the bow, 
And for one the creak of snow-shoes on the crust; 
And for one the lakeside lilies where the bull-moose waits the cow, 
And for one the mule train coughing in the dust. 
Who hath smelt wood smoke at twilight? Who hath heard the birch- 
log burning? 
Who is quick to read the noises of the night? 

Let him follow with the others, for the Young Men's feet are turning 
To the camps of proved desire and known delight ! 

Do you know the blackened timber — do you know that racing stream 

With the raw, right-angled log-jam at the end; 

And the bar of sun warmed shingle where a man may bask and dream 

To the click of shod canoe poles round the bend? 

It is there that we are going with our rods and reels and traces, 

To a silent, smoky Indian that we know — 

To a couch of new-pulled hemlock with the starlight on our faces, 

For the Red Gods call us out and we must go ! 

Do you know the world's white roof-tree — do you know that windy rift 

Where the baffling mountain-eddies chop and change? 

Do you know the long day's patience, belly-down on frozen drift. 

While the head of heads is feeding out of range? 

It is there that I am going, where the boulders and the snow lie. 

With a trusty, nimble tracker that I know. 

I have sworn an oath, to keep it on the Horns of Ovis poll, 

And the Red Gods call me out and I must go ! 

Canadian sportsmen are fortunate on account of the 
comparative ease with which they can satisfy their long- 
ings, owing to the proximity of good hunting-grounds to 
all our large centres of population. In few countries do 
the same conditions exist. 



VALUE OF WILD LIFE TO THE NATION 15 

If we ask ourselves wherein lies the chief value of our 
wild life from the recreative standpoint, the reply would 
undoubtedly be in its relation to human efficiency. What 
man is there who, after months of unremitting toil, takes 
down his gun, rod, or camera, and, seeking the silence of the 
open air for a week or two, does not come back physically 
and mentally refreshed and remade ? What can ever equal 
the reinvigorating effect on body and mind of days spent 
out in the open, 

When you steal upon a land that man has not sullied with his intrusion, 

When the aboriginal shy dwellers in the broad solitudes 

Are asleep in their innumerable dens and night haunts 

Amid the dry ferns, in the tender nests 

Pressed into shape by the breasts of the Mother birds; 

How shall we simulate the thrill of announcement 

When lake after lake lingering in the starlight 

Turn their faces towards you, 

And are caressed in the salutation of colour? 

—D. C. Scott. 

Nothing can ever equal our wild life as a means of in- 
creasing human efficiency where the tendency of modern 
life is to work under the high pressure of city conditions. 
As our population increases the need will become greater, 
and unless every possible step is taken to conserve the wild 
hfe for the refreshment of the men of the future we shall 
gradually lose this unequalled source of national vigour. 

So much has been written on this almost inexhaustible 
theme that little that is new can be said, even if a more 
lengthy treatment of this aspect of the value of our wild 
life were desirable; but its value as a means of increasing 
and maintaining our self-reliance and resourcefulness should 
not be lost sight of. Nothing calls for resourcefulness so 
much as the quest of wild life, when the beaten tracks of 
a more civilized life, where everything is provided for one, 
are left and one has to return to the primal competitive 



16 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

habits. Resourcefulness is a characteristic of all those 
called upon to conquer new lands. And on no occasion has 
resourcefulness of such men stood them in so good stead as 
when the Canadians barred the way to Calais in the second 
battle of Ypres, or when the Australians and New Zealanders 
held impossible positions in Gallipoli. 



CHAPTER III 

THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 

One of the saddest features of the history of the wild 
life during recent times has been the disappearance, that 
is, the extermination of a number of animals that were 
formerly abundant. And this has taken place during a 
period in our history when our attitude towards such mat- 
ters has been gradually changing for the better. 

The pity of it all Hes in the fact that once an animal be- 
comes exterminated it cannot be replaced ; it has gone for- 
ever. Many of our resources may be lost for a time, but 
they can be regained. Forests may be cut down or burnt, 
but reafforestation is possible; towns may be destroyed by 
fire, but better ones can rise from the ashes. It is not so 
with our mammals and birds. Creatures that have existed 
long before the advent of man disappear as a result of his 
recklessness, and we are the poorer for their loss. 

Nowhere is our fauna so rich where man has established 
himself to any great extent that we can afford to permit the 
complete disappearance of animals. Even the total destruc- 
tion of our worst predatory animals would be an unfortunate 
loss. In order, therefore, to understand thoroughly the 
principles that are involved in the conservation of our wild 
life, we must appreciate the causes responsible for its dis- 
appearance, and realize the extent to which species have 
become extinct and are becoming exterminated. 

Main Causes of Extermination. — Broadly speaking, the 
causes of extermination may be divided into two classes: 
unavoidable and avoidable. To a very large extent the 
extermination, at least the reduction to a point bordering 

17 



18 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

on extermination, of the buffalo was unavoidable, although, 
as will be evident when the matter is more fully discussed 
later, that reduction proceeded at a pace altogether out of 
proportion to its necessity. The buffalo formerly ranged 
over what have proved to be the most valuable grain-grow- 
ing areas of the North American continent. With the set- 
tlement and bringing under cultivation of those areas it 
was inevitable that the range of the buffalo must become so 
seriously restricted as to be a menace to the continued ex- 
istence of this animal. Transcontinental railroads divided 
the herds and hindered their normal migratory movements. 
Settlement followed the railroads. From an economic 
standpoint the case was against the existence of the buffalo 
in anything approaching large numbers. 

To a lesser extent the reduction in the number of the 
antelope was unavoidable, at least so far as its history in 
the Northwestern States and Prairie Provinces of Canada is 
concerned. By the extension of the wheat-lands and the 
gradual reduction in the areas of range country the area 
available for antelope was seriously reduced and circum- 
scribed. That fact, of course, was unavoidable, and led 
to the further reduction by shooting, which was avoidable. 

In a few cases animals have become extinct from natural 
causes which were, of course, unavoidable. The case of 
the Labrador duck (Plate I) affords an illustration of the 
extinction of an animal from unknown causes. 

On the other hand the extermination of other creatures, 
particularly birds, was avoidable. The extermination of 
the passenger pigeon and the great auk was brought about 
mainly by wanton destruction, as unnecessary as one could 
imagine. One of the chief objects of wild-life conservation 
is to prevent the extermination of animals where this is 
avoidable and to maintain the remnant of those animals 
whose reduction to the verge of extermination has been 
brought about by causes which are largely unavoidable as 



1 



THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 19 

they are consequent upon the economic development of the 
country. 

The main axiom of wild-hfe protection is this: A species 
of animal must not be destroyed at a greater rate than it 
can increase. Further, the preservation of any part of our 
native fauna depends upon the maintenance of sufficient of 
its normal range to permit unmolested feeding and breed- 
ing. In other words, killing for recreation or food must be 
wisely regulated, and the provision of refuges is indis- 
pensable. 

Much of the destruction that has taken place, and is 
taking place, is thoughtless. The remedy for that is edu- 
cation, supplemented necessarily by legislation. The peo- 
ple of the United States and Canada are energetic in what- 
ever they undertake, whether business or pleasure. But 
that energy when applied to sport may be disastrous, and it 
must be wisely restricted by law. Hornaday has aptly de- 
scribed the struggle between the forces tending to destruc- 
tion on the one hand and protection on the other. He 
says: ''In every township throughout the whole United 
States the destroyers of wild life either are active in slaugh- 
ter or are ready to become active the moment they are 
left free to do so. Every beast, bird, fish, and creeping 
thing has its human enemy. Americans are notoriously 
enterprising, restless, and prone to venture. It is that rest- 
less activity and indomitable nervous energy that is man- 
fully attempting 'dry-farming' in the west, desert-farming 
in the southwest, and the drainage of the Florida Everglades. 
Often the joy of the conquest of nature outruns the love of 
cash returns. Apply that spirit to forests, and it quickly 
becomes devastation. Apply it to wild life and it quickly 
becomes extermination. Our conquering and pulverizing 
natural spirit is a curse to all our wild life." 

Danger in Numbers. — The very abundance of our wild 
Ufe has frequently been the cause of its extermination. 



20 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Who would have thought of suggesting, less than one hun- 
dred years ago, when flocks of millions of passenger pigeons 
ranged over the whole United States and parts of Canada, 
their multitudes at times darkening the air, that in the year 
1916 not a single living specimen would exist? Yet the 
only specimens we have are the stuffed ones and the skins 
in our museums and private collections. This bird was 
wiped out of existence for the market and for the pot. Mr. 
W. B. Mershon has recorded the shipment, in 1869, from 
the town of Hartford, Mich., for the market, of three car- 
loads of pigeons daily for forty days, making a total of 
11,880,000 birds. Another town in Michigan marketed 
15,840,000 pigeons in two years. These are samples of the 
destruction that was taking place everywhere. No creature 
could withstand the effects of such slaughter. 

The great auk, one of our most interesting sea-birds, re- 
lated to the murres, was formerly abundant on the islands 
and shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Easy of capture 
and about the size of a goose, it was killed in thousands by 
the crews of vessels engaged in its destruction for the sake 
of the oil it contained. To-day it is extinct. Few skins 
remain in our museums and its eggs are so scarce that they 
are worth about $1,200 each. 

Along our Atlantic coast the Eskimo curlew {Numenius 
borealis Forst.) used to wing its way in countless myriads 
during its fall migration from the breeding-places in the 
Barren Grounds to South America. In the spring it trav- 
elled north again across the interior and swarmed over the 
prairies. They landed in enormous numbers on the Atlantic 
coast, from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia to New Eng- 
land. In Newfoundland their millions darkened the sky 
and the fishermen salted them down in barrels. Every year 
they were killed in thousands for the market; they suffered 
by reason of their excessive abundance. At the close of the 



PT.ATE I 




CANADIAN BIRDS WHICH HAVE BEEN EXTERMINATED WITHIN 
RECENT YEARS AND ARE NOW EXTINCT 

1. Passenger Pigeon 

2. Great Auk 

3. Labrador Duck 



THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 21 

last century ornithologists realized that this most useful and 
highly esteemed of our American game birds was disappear- 
ing, until in 1908 Preble stated: ''It has become practically 
exterminated, although formerly enormously abundant and 
fairly common up to 1890." The market demand and the 
tastes of the epicures have sealed its fate. Its abundance 
proved to be its destruction. 

As with the birds so with our mammals, and in later chap- 
ters the reduction of the buffalo and the antelope from mil- 
lions to a few thousands will be described. To-day the 
caribou is undoubtedly in danger of a similar fate. And in 
fact the same is true of any animal, be it bird or mammal: 
so long as mere numbers are regarded as a reason for exces- 
sive killing, just so surely will the extermination of an 
animal follow. It should also be pointed out that when a 
formerly abundant animal becomes reduced in numbers the 
remnant may tend to herd together and thus give an im- 
pression locally of great abundance. This danger exists in 
the case of such a gregarious animal as the caribou. Local 
abundance, therefore, should never be taken as an indica- 
tion of general abundance and as a reason for permitting 
killing in large numbers. 

It is therefore of the greatest importance to realize that 
numerical abundance is no guarantee that an animal will 
not be exterminated, unless its destruction is carefully regu- 
lated and permitted to a very limited degree. The examples 
given are surely sufficient proof of this fact, and should be 
a serious warning to us in the conservation of the more 
abundant species of mammals and birds. 

The Various Adverse Factors. — The greatest exterminator 
of all wild life has always been the market hunter, caring 
only for the largest and most immediate pecuniary returns 
and utterly regardless of the future and of the rights of pos- 
terity to enjoy the wild creatures, both furred and feathered, 



22 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

that our hospitable land so abundantly provided, and still 
provides if we will only conserve them in accordance with 
their needs. 

Compared with the rapacity of man, the destruction of 
our wild life by natural factors is slight, although it must 
demand our serious consideration. When animals become 
reduced in numbers through man's improvidence, then their 
natural enemies which have not suffered a like diminution 
take an unnatural and abnormal toll. The usual balance 
of nature is completely upset, and the remnant is exposed 
to excessive numbers of their enemies. The latter increase 
in numbers and become emboldened in their attacks. Pred- 
atory animals, such as wolves, harry the struggling bands 
whose former abundance enabled them to withstand the 
natural onslaughts of their enemies. Therefore, when an 
animal is reduced in numbers, the necessity of lessening the 
effects of natural reduction by predatory enemies becomes 
an important part of any policy of protection. 

In Canada forest fires constitute one of the most serious 
dangers to animal life. Not only do such conflagrations de- 
stroy large numbers of mammals and birds, particularly 
young ones, but they destroy the haunts of such animals, 
and in consequence any replenishing or restocking of the 
devastated area is impeded for some time, and in any case 
the conditions are never as suitable or as attractive. 

It has already been pointed out that a species of animal 
must not be destroyed at a greater rate than it can increase. 
This axiom involves a number of fundamental requirements. 
The first of these is the necessity of safeguarding the future 
of the species by adequate protection of the females. Wlien 
the females of game animals are killed a reduction in num- 
bers will invariably ensue, and the decrease in the abun- 
dance of game animals, owing to the killing of the females, 
is now generally recognized by those responsible for the 
protection of game. Where the females are not protected 



THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 23 

the chances of serious reduction and ultimate extermina- 
tion are enormously increased. The second requisite in the 
conservation of a species of game animal is a reahzation of 
the effect that inevitably follows the killing of the most 
virile males. The sportsman's aim is usually to secure the 
finest specimen, which usually implies the largest male; in 
the case of deer this means the best head. If this quest is 
carried out to excess it may involve the destruction of the 
most virile animals to an extent that would affect the gen- 
eral virility of the local stock of game with the obvious re- 
sults. The stock would undergo degeneration, and the de- 
structive effects of natural factors would be correspondingly 
enhanced. The remedy for this state of affairs is regula- 
tion as regards the number of males that may be killed, and 
the maintenance of a virile nucleus by means of protected 
refuges. The latter remedy will be considered more fully 
in a later chapter. 

Apart from inadequate protection, which is an avoidable 
factor in ultimate extermination, great reduction in numbers 
has been brought about in the case of our wild fowl, such as 
ducks and geese, by the extension of agriculture in various 
parts of the country, but particularly in the Prairie Prov- 
inces. The drainage of swamps and natural breeding-places 
has been an important factor in the reduction of our supply 
of wild fowl. And these birds have been gradually pushed 
further afield from their former breeding-places. The rem- 
edy for this state of affairs, so far as a remedy can be ap- 
plied, is the reservation of areas unsuitable for profitable 
agriculture as refuges and breeding-places to secure as 
abundant a local supply of birds as possible. 

Inadequate protection of wild fowl during the spring has 
been one of the chief causes of an avoidable character of the 
great reduction in the numbers of ducks, geese, and shore- 
birds. Spring shooting, had it been permitted to continue 
— by international action, of which I shall speak later, it 



24 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

has been wholly prohibited — would not only have reduced 
the numbers of wild fowl as a whole to seriously small pro- 
portions, but would undoubtedly have led to the extermina- 
tion of certain species. Fall shooting is perfectly legitimate 
so long as the number that may be killed is limited by law, 
as it involves only the destruction of a portion of the annual 
increase; that is, it is using the interest on the capital stock 
of birds. But spring shooting implies the destruction of 
the breeding stock, that is, of the capital. The supporters 
of spring shooting either refused or failed to realize that, 
even though the birds, during migration, are not actually 
breeding, they are generally mated. Many species of ducks 
mate as early as February, and the killing of such birds in- 
volved the reduction of the number of birds required to 
maintain an increase sufficient to provide legitimate shoot- 
ing in the fall without effecting a reduction in the total 
num_ber. 

But of all factors responsible for the enormous reduction 
in the numbers of our wild fowl the market gunner was one 
of the most serious. Absolutely devoid of any desire to 
conserve birds, and inbred with the sole desire to kill as 
many birds as possible, and in the shortest time, the market 
gunner was only limited by the physical impossibility of 
killing more than a certain number of birds per day. The 
great slaughtering-grounds on which our Canadian-bred 
birds were killed in their thousands for the markets of New 
York, Boston, Philadelphia, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chi- 
cago, San Francisco, and other large cities in the United 
States, were: Cape Cod; Great South Bay, New York; Cur- 
rituck Sound, North Carohna; Marsh Island, Louisiana; 
the Sunk Lands of Arkansas; the Lake regions of Minnesota; 
the prairie regions of the Middle West; the Great Salt Lake; 
the Klamath Lake region in Oregon; and in southern Cali- 
fornia. To-day the number of wild fowl to be found in 
these places is but a small proportion of the former thou- 



THE EXTERMINATION OF WILD LIFE 25 

sands, and certain of these haunts, such as Marsh Island 
and Klamath Lakes, have been set aside as bird refuges. 

In conclusion, let it be remembered that the extermination 
of any animal cannot be prevented unless such an animal is 
sufficiently protected to obviate the danger of its destruc- 
tion at a greater rate than its natural increase. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 

It has already been pointed out that Canada and Alaska 
constitute the last strongholds of the chief "big game" 
animals of the North American continent. Although their 
numbers have decreased, the larger mammals of our native 
fauna may still be found in fair numbers in our forests and 
on our mountains. 

In this chapter I propose to deal with the larger members 
of our wild life, and to describe as briefly as possible their 
distribution, habits, and abundance. A knowledge of these 
facts is essential to an understanding of the need for their 
conservation, and of the steps by which this may be ac- 
complished. This is especially important in the case of 
the musk-ox and the antelope, which are the two most in- 
teresting and scientifically unique of our large native mam- 
mals, and which will be exterminated within a few years 
unless absolute protection is given to them and rigorously 
enforced. Further, the great possibility of utilizing such 
larger members of our wild life as the barren-ground caribou 
and deer as a source of meat has been urged, and the facts 
that will be set forth in this chapter will serve to empha- 
size and lead to a greater appreciation of this potential food 
supply. 

THE WAPITI, OR ELK 

The wapiti or elk {Cervus canadensis) is the handsomest 
of all our native deer, and next to the moose it is the largest. 
It is the North American representative of the European 
red deer, and formerly was the most widely distributed 

26 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 



27 



member of the deer family in North America. But the 
histories of all the largest and most interesting members of 
our wild life are depressingly similar, and all have suffered 
the inevitable result of territorial development and man's 
improvident greed for slaughter. Thousands of these splen- 




FiG. I.— ELK-HORN PYRAMID 

Such pyramids used to be found in ttie great plains, indicating the former 

abundance of the Wapiti 

(After Baird) 



did animals have been slain merely for the sake of their 
teeth. No condemnation of this iniquitous practice can 
be too strong, and every possible means should be taken to 
put an end to the practice of dealing in and wearing elk 
"tusks," in view of the barbarous significance of such use- 
less emblems. The result is that to-day the abundance of 
the wapiti is but one-twentieth of what it was formerly, 
according to Hornaday. The latest estimate of their num- 
bers over the whole of their present restricted range in 



28 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

the United States is 70,000,* of which nearly half are to be 
found in Wyoming, mainly in and about Yellowstone Na- 
tional Park. 

Distribution and Abundance in Canada. — Its original 
range is shown in the accompanying map prepared by 
Ernest Thompson Seton; this also shows the present range. 
Formerly the wapiti occupied the greater portion of the cen- 
tral region of the continent. They ranged from Quebec, 
Massachusetts, and North CaroHna in the east, to the 
Pacific coast of California on the west, and from the Peace 
River region and northern Manitoba in the north, to Mexico 
in the south. Now they are restricted to certain regions in 
the Prairie Provinces of Canada, as will be described later, 
to British Columbia, and to Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, 
and the Pacific Coast States. 

When Jacques Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence to 
Hochelaga in 1535, ''stags" were found in large numbers. 
The region of Kingston, Ont., is marked on Champlain's 
map of 1632 as a region where these animals occurred in 
abundance. Father Lemoine, sailing on the St. Lawrence 
in 1653-4, found large numbers of what were undoubtedly 
wapiti in that region. To-day there are no "wild" wapiti 
east of Manitoba. 

In Manitoba they must have been very abundant in the 
early days, judging from the large numbers of antlers that 
are to be found, particularly in the southern portion of the 
province; but wapiti were exterminated from that region 
of the province many years ago. To-day they are to be 
found fairly abundantly in the Riding Mountains, and in 
the territory lying between Lakes Winnipeg and Manitoba. 
The increased protection afforded by the Riding Mountains 
Game Reserve is undoubtedly helping them to increase in 
numbers, and, in spite of much illegal killing that has taken 

* "Our National Elk Herds," by H. S. Graves and E. W. Nelson. U. S. 
Dept. Agriculture, Circular No. 51, 1919. 



30 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

place, Mr. Charles Barber, the chief game warden for Mani- 
toba, informs me that they are increasing in numbers and 
that the females appear to predominate. He believes that 
there are approximately six or seven hundred animals at 
the present time. These are to be found in the following 
districts: four or five hundred are in the vicinity of the 
Riding Mountains, and about one or two hundred are sup- 
posed to be roaming in the territory between Lakes Winni- 
peg and Manitoba. 

The Province of Manitoba is to be congratulated on the 
action it took in 1917 in amending its game laws to provide 
for an absolute close season on wapiti. Such a wise and 
public-spirited step will undoubtedly assist this most de- 
sirable game and meat animal to regain somewhat its former 
numbers in those portions of the province so admirably 
suited to its needs, and unsuitable for agricultural develop- 
ment. 

In Saskatchewan Mr. F. Bradshaw, chief game guar- 
dian, stated in his annual report for the year ending April 
30, 1916, that the Game Act has been amended to limit 
the bag of this animal to one male only. ''This step is in 
the right direction," he states, "but the elk is so desperately 
near the danger zone that a close season for a number of 
years would be in the best interests of this animal. The 
number of elk killed this year is 200, which is a slight in- 
crease over last year's figures." In his annual report for 
the year ending April 30, 1917, Mr. Bradshaw reported on 
the wapiti as follows: 

In our last report we made reference to the fact that the elk are in 
danger of being exterminated, and suggested that it would be in the 
interests of these animals, and of all persons concerned for the future 
welfare of the elk, to close the season for a period of years. This is the 
opinion held by all game conservationists who are familiar with condi- 
tions as they prevail in Saskatchewan. Naturally if there were any ob- 
jections against prohibiting the hunting of elk for a number of years 



1 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 31 

they would come from the sportsmen who hunt these animals. In order 
that we might have the valuable opinions of these men, the department 
communicated with each person reported having killed elk last season. 
. . . The replies received indicate quite plainly that elk-hunting is re- 
stricted to certain localities. . . . Over 90 per cent of the 175 elk killed 
last year were secured in townships 51, 52, 53, and 54, ranges 18 to 27 
both inclusive, all west of the 2nd meridian. This appears to be the 
only elk-hunting ground of any account in our province, and it will take 
but a few years to deplete the few remaining herds, if action is not taken 
to save them. . . . The majority of our correspondents are of the opin- 
ion that the elk are decreasing in numbers, and unlawful hunting by 
Indians is given by many as a cause for this decrease. 

Mr. Bradshaw informed me verbally, in 1915, that he 
thought the wapiti were decreasing. The number killed 
would indicate that Thompson Seton's estimate of 500 in 
1907 was too low for the number of wapiti in this province. 
Mr. Bradshaw has kindly furnished me with a map showing 
the present distribution of the wapiti in Saskatchewan, and 
they appear to be confined to the following regions: South- 
east of Prince Albert, in the neighbourhood of Basin and 
Lenore Lakes; northeast of Prince Albert, in the lake coun- 
try north of the Saskatchewan River; and north of Battle- 
ford in the region between Turtle and Pelican Lakes and the 
Big River. In view of the comparative scarcity of this 
animal in Saskatchewan and the necessity of providing an 
absolute close season, the Commission of Conservation made 
strong representations to the Saskatchewan Government on 
the subject in 1918, and supported the local efforts to 
secure such permanent protection. We are pleased to re- 
cord that the Saskatchewan Game Act was amended in 
1919 to provide for an absolute close season in elk in that 
province. This will enable the wapiti to increase in a 
region so well adapted to its requirements. 

The numbers of wapiti in Alberta have decreased, accord- 
ing to a report furnished me by Mr. B, Lawton, the chief 
game guardian, and only an absolute close season such as 



32 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

the provincial government has now declared can prevent 
their reduction to the point of extermination. 

In British Columbia the wisdom of adequate protection 
has been demonstrated by the increase of the wapiti, both 
on the mainland and on Vancouver Island. The largest 
numbers of wapiti on the mainland are to be found in the 
East Kootenay and Rocky Mountains regions. The fol- 
lowing reports by two officers of the Geological Survey of 
Canada have been furnished to me. Mr. R. C. McDonald, 
writing on December 12, 1916, states: "Near the summit of 
the White River and southwest of Mount Fox in British 
Columbia, I saw several herds of elk. This section is not 
within the park [Rocky Mountains Park, Alta.] boundaries, 
and, as it is the only place where I saw^ elk during the 
season, I consider that they should be well protected in 
order that they may multiply and finally find their way 
into the park." Mr. D. A. Nichols, writing on December 
11, 1916, states: "In the section covered during 1915 and 
1916 in British Columbia and Alberta, the big game, es- 
pecially the elk, goat, sheep, deer and bear, were very plen- 
tiful. At the headwaters of the PaUiser, Spray, Elk, and 
Kananaskis Rivers, the elk, which at one time were nearly 
extinct, are increasing rather rapidly, so that bands from 
ten to twenty-five were seen quite frequently. It has been 
rumoured that the season for elk was to be thrown open. 
It seems to me that they should be protected for some time 
to come in order that they might increase sufficiently so 
that they could spread out to the foot-hills where at one 
time they were so prevalent. In early times they roamed 
over the plains and foot-hills, and have only taken refuge 
in the mountainous sections on account of excessive hunt- 
ing. Efficient protection will still have to be granted to 
them, for the band that I saw were so tame that we could 
ride up to within 150 yards of them with the saddle-horses 
and pack-train. If they are hunted in these valleys they 



I 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 33 

can easily be slaughtered, as the valleys are very narrow, 
and the elk, unlike sheep or goat, do not find sanctuary in 
the higher altitudes of rugged peaks. A sanctuary of several 
square miles at the head of the White, Palliser, Spray, Kana- 
naskis, and Elk Rivers would assist in preserving these bands 
of elk." 

I have also received other reports of a similar encouraging 
nature from men who have recently visited this region. 

In his annual report for 1914, Mr. Bryan Williams, the 
provincial game warden for British Columbia, reports on 
the wapiti as follows: 

Reports from Vancouver Island are much more encouraging than they 
were. Several quite big bands and a number of small ones are known of 
in certam places, and these bands are larger, at any rate, than they were 
when the last report was written. Also calves have been reported for 
the first time for several years; so that there is good reason to believe 
that there is an increase. Now that wolves are getting quite scarce and 
cougars hunted more and more, the calves will have a much better chance, 
and the prospects for the future are much better. 

Wapiti in southern East Kootenay are still doing well. In the north- 
ern part of the district wapiti have been reported in the western side of 
the Columbia. This is the first time such a report has been received. 
If it is true, and they have established themselves there, it will be a 
splendid thing. Years ago wapiti used to winter right along the benches 
of the valley, and though the lower benches of the valley are much too 
settled for this to happen again, there is and will be plenty of range for 
them for years to come along the foot-hills. 

In his annual report for 1915, Mr. Williams is able to 
record a continued encouraging increase. He states: 

In East Kootenay wapiti are still increasing, although no further re- 
ports of the small band that crossed the Selkirks have been received. 
On Vancouver Island there is an undoubted increase, particularly in the 
southern part. It will, however, be most advisable to keep a close season 
on these animals for a good many years yet; at any rate, on Vancouver 
Island, though in the Kootenay District in a year or two it may be possi- 
ble to have a short open season, , 



34 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

In the annual report of the provincial game warden of 
British Columbia for 1918, a small herd of wapiti is re- 
ported pasturing around the south end of the Elk Valley- 
Game Reserve (see p. 239) and a larger herd is known to 
be in the vicinity of the headwaters of the W^hite River. 
Efforts to secure a short open season have proved unsuc- 
cessful, as the Game Conservation Board considers that the 
absence of any reports of an increase in the number of wapiti 
does not warrant such action.* The wapiti liberated at 
Bridge River, near Lillooet, are reported as doing well, 
and two claims for damages done by these animals to the 
crops of Indians in that district have been paid. 

In the Dominion Parks of western Canada successful 
efforts are being made to increase the herds of wapiti that 
are protected in those areas. The following figures of their 
numbers in the year 1919 have been furnished me by the 
Commissioner of Dominion Parks, Mr. J. B. Harkin: 

Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta 106 

Rocky Mountains Park, Alta 27 

Elk Island Park, Alta (estimated) 106 

The superintendent of the Waterton Lakes Park reported 
that in 1915 a herd of wapiti was to be seen almost any time 
near Turret Mountain. ''This herd has increased greatly," 
he states, "and is now estimated at about 200 head." 

In 1916 a herd of about fifty-eight animals was secured 
from Jackson Hole, Wyoming, by the Commissioner of 
Dominion Parks, with the intention of placing them in the 
large wapiti enclosure in Waterton Lakes Park. The wapiti 
previously enclosed in that park will be liberated, and by 
this means a beginning will be made in stocking the enor- 
mous area of the park over which this animal formerly 
ranged, and into the western region of which the increase 

* It is to be greatly regretted that in 1919 the Game Conservation Board 
permitted the restricted hunting of wapiti. We feel that these animals are 
by no means sufficiently abundant as yet to permit hunting. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 35 

from British Columbia herds is ah-eady beginning to wander, 
as shown by the reports that I have already quoted. 

The foregoing review of the present status of the wapiti 
in Canada affords ground for optimism with regard to the 
future of this, the most magnificent of our native deer. If 
the encouragement and almost complete protection that 
they are now receiving is continued and with the increase 
of public sentiment in favour of such protection — we have 
every reason to believe that it will be maintained — the 
wapiti will continue to increase in those parts of Canada 
most adapted to its needs and mode of life, and where it 
formerly existed in abundance. 

Habits of the Wapiti. — The feeding habits of the wapiti 
vary somewhat according to the season of the year. For- 
merly, when it enjoyed an extensive range, it usually re- 
treated to the wooded slopes of the mountains and other 
wooded regions during the summer season, and there it 
browsed on buds, leaves, and twigs, and grazed on such 
woodland grasses as it might find. It is an animal with 
both browsing and grazing habits. In the winter it 
wandered on the open prairies and grazed where the snow 
was not too deep. Deep snow usually compels them to 
seek the wooded regions. The best country for the wapiti 
is one which combines such summer and winter range as 
I have described. 

During the summer the bulls lead a solitary life and by 
September their splendid antlers have attained their full 
size. They are very polygamous animals, and, at this season 
of the year, fully prepared for struggles with other bulls for 
the control of as large a band of cows as they can secure, 
they challenge their rivals to combat. In regions inhabited 
by the wapiti the wild call of the bull is an inspiring sound. 
Followed by his band of cows he chmbs the crest of any 
near-by hill, and utters the well-known bugle-notes. The 
first guttural notes are roared out in an ascending scale 



36 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

until the shrill call reaches a screaming whistle, which grad- 
ually fades away again to a few guttural grunts as the chal- 
lenge is echoed down the valley. The real bugle-notes are 
only uttered by the mature bulls. 

During the winter the animals frequently congregate in 
herds, and in Wyoming these number many thousands. 
In the spring the cows remain banded in small herds until 
the time for the birth of the calves approaches. They then 
separate, and m solitude bring forth, about May or June, a 
single calf, which remains with the mother until it is a 
year old. The bulls drop their antlers in March or April, 
and the growth of the new pair is rapid, usually attaining 
full size in about three months. They are "in velvet" un- 
til about August, when the animals hasten the shedding of 
the velvet by rubbing their antlers against trees or bushes. 

The flesh is in the poorest condition at the end of the rut- 
ting season, that is, in October; and, as bull wapiti are usu- 
ally killed soon after this, the venison is often inferior in 
quality. When killed at the proper season and allowed to 
hang for a few days, the meat is much superior to most 
forms of venison. 

Economic Value of Wapiti. — Apart from its value from 
the point of view of the sportsman, to whom it appeals 
more than any other species of deer, the value of the wapiti 
as a source of wild-deer meat cannot be overestimated. As 
already stated, it affords venison of a superior kind. By 
its habits it is adapted to living in wooded country not well 
suited to cattle grazing. In Canada we have large areas 
of such country in the former and present range of the 
wapiti. With the preservation of those timbered areas 
should be associated the preservation of the wapiti. Their 
polygamous habits tend to render less difficult their preser- 
vation and use. 

There are many wooded areas admirably adapted to 
wapiti that might be stocked to advantage with these 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 37 

animals. The successful efforts of the Forest, Fish, and 
Game Commission of the State of New York serve as an 
excellent example of what may be accomplished in this 
direction. From 1901 to 1903 several small herds of wapiti 
were presented by the owners of private herds, and these 
were liberated in small bands, chiefly on State lands. Their 
increase was so satisfactory that by the end of 1907 it was 
estimated that the total number at large in the Adirondacks 
was about 350. 

The wapiti can be readily bred in private parks, and in 
his useful bulletin on the raising of deer David E. Lantz* 
has given many successful examples of such private enter- 
prise. This bulletin gives full information on the manage- 
ment of these animals, and will be found of great assistance 
to any persons who may desire to undertake this commend- 
able line of game preservation. 

DEER 

In Canada we have three species of deer, excluding the 
wapiti or elk: the white-tailed or ''red" deer, also called the 
Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus) ; the mule deer, or 
Rocky Mountain *' black-tail" (Odocoileus hemionus) of the 
west, and the Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus colum- 
hianus) of the Pacific coast. The three species are very 
distinct and easily separated; they exhibit differences in 
size, form, antlers, and certain other structural details, and 
in their habits; all of which characteristics will be described 
in the following accounts of the three species. 

The White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 

Strange as it may seem, the territory occupied by this 
timid denizen of our woods and forests has actually increased, 

* David E. Lantz, "Raising Deer and Other Large Game Animals in the 
United States." U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Biological Survey Bull. No. 36, 
62 pp., 8 plates, 1910. 



38 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

owing to the settlement of the country, and it is only in 
regions where there has been insufficient or no protection 
that its numbers have decreased. In this respect it differs 
from many of the larger forms of our native wild life, and 
its tendency to extend its range with the settlement of the 
country, and to increase in numbers when given adequate 
protection, are facts of very great economic importance in 
the development of a ''wild" meat supply, to which subject 
reference has already been made (pp. 8-10). 

The chief distinguishing characteristics of this species are 
the form of the antlers and tail, and the length of the gland 
on the outer side of the hind shank. The length of this 
gland is about one inch long in the white-tail, two inches 
long in the Columbian black-tail, and three inches long in 
the mule deer. 





FiQ. II.— ANTLERS OF THE WHITE-TAILED DEER (1) AND MULE 

DEER (2) 

The antlers of the white-tailed deer, after rising for a 
short distance from the forehead, bend suddenly forward 
so that the beam is almost horizontal and the tines rise 
perpendicularly. The characteristic tail, from which this 
species derives its name, is long and bushy. The under side 
is white, and the edges are fringed with the same colour. 
When it is startled it runs away, carrying its white tail aloft, 
and this conspicuous appendage sways stiffly from side to 
side with every leaping movement of its owner. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 39 

It derives its name, the "red" deer, by which it is fre- 
quently known in eastern Canada, from the rusty red or 
yellowish-brown colour of its summer coat; but this name 
is very undesirable, as it leads to confusion with the red 
deer of Europe. The red coat is replaced in the fall by a 
winter coat of brownish gray. 

Distribution. — The white-tailed deer is distributed from 
Nova Scotia to Alberta. Its favourite haunt is brushy 
river bottoms and deep woods that are interspersed with 
open spaces. In the plains regions of the west it haunts 
the tree-lined water-courses. Where its favourite woods 
have been cut down, as in the long-settled parts of Ontario, 
it has disappeared. But, on the other hand, it has followed 
the settlements into the wooded regions where the clearing 
of the forest has provided it with the environment that it 
prefers, and it has thus extended its range northward. On 
the edges of settlements it secures greater protection from 
the wolves that harass it in the deeper recesses of the for- 
ests, and when its natural food is scarce it is able to satisfy 
its hunger on the settlers' crops. 

Habits. — During the winter deer of both sexes herd to- 
gether, often in fairly large bands; and they feed on ever- 
greens, twigs, moss, and such dried grass as they are able 
to obtain. With the advent of spring and the melting of 
the snow the older bucks wander off, leaving the does with 
the young deer of the previous year. In May the does seek 
solitude in the thicker cover of the woods, and there bring 
forth their young. In the first year they usually have one 
fawn; in the second- and subsequent years two fawns are 
generally born. Sometimes three fawns are produced, but 
such records are not common. The young fawns lie hidden 
during the day and are visited periodically by the doe, 
which never wanders far away from them. The coats of 
the young fawns are of a rich brown colour, speckled with 
white spots, thus forming a colouration that is very pro- 



40 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

tective in character, resembling as it does spots of light 
falling on a dark object. This form of protective coloura- 
tion is characteristic of the young of many species of deer 
during their comparatively helpless state. When they are 
several weeks old the fawns begin to follow their mothers. 
During the greater part of the day they rest, and they 
emerge from their wooded retreats at sunset and in the early 
hours of the morning to feed and drink. These foraging 
expeditions are never conducted in black darkness, but 
on moonlight nights they take advantage of the light. 
Towards October the fawns are weaned, and they quickly 
lose their speckled coats and assume the grayish winter 
coats. 

While the does devote themselves during the spring and 
summer months to their maternal duties, the bucks wander 
off, frequently in pairs, and lead a bachelor life. They 
usually lose their antlers in January, and very vigorous 
animals may lose them a little earlier. The new antlers 
begin to appear a few weeks after the old ones are dropped, 
and they complete their growth about August. The velvet 
with which the new antlers are clothed soon begins to fall 
off, and its loss is hastened by persistent scraping. By the 
end of September the buck is in possession of a clean pair of 
antlers, and is prepared for the masculine contests that are 
to take place during the next few months. The advent of 
the fall brings a richer food supply in the shape of nuts, 
acorns, etc., on which the deer feed and grow fat. In Octo- 
ber the bucks, whose necks have begun to swell, commence 
to seek the does, to whose presence they have been indiffer- 
ent earlier in the season. By November the rutting season 
is at its height. The bucks not only fight among them- 
selves but will sometimes attack man at this time, and they 
have not infrequently proved to be dangerous adversaries. 
All keepers of park deer should be particularly cautious 
during the rutting season. The rutting season may last 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 41 

as long as two months, but by the middle of December the 
mating fury subsides, and bucks, does, and their fawns of 
that year wander the woods together until the deepening 
snows circumscribe their movements and confine them to 
''yards" of well-trodden snow, from which paths radiate 
to their chosen feeding-grounds. Deep snow is a calamity 
to the deer, and their wanderings are limited until the ad- 
vent of warm days in the spring releases them and permits 
the resumption of the separate life of the sexes. When 
the bucks are in their prime they may weigh as much as 
300 pounds. 

Abundance. — The white-tailed deer is the most abundant 
larger-game animal throughout its range in Canada, par- 
ticularly in the east. In the early days it was the chief 
source of meat, and, in many cases, of clothing, and many a 
settler has been saved from starvation by the presence of 
this animal. 

Formerly it did not occur in a large part of the region 
in eastern Canada that it now occupies. From its original 
home in the south it has followed the settlers into our north- 
ern woods. 

It has been generally believed that the white- tailed deer 
did not formerly exist in Nova Scotia. Recently, however, 
bones of this deer have been found in two widely separated 
prehistoric Indian shell-heaps by archaeologists of the 
Canadian Geological Survey.* Toe bones were found in a 
shell-heap near Mahone Bay, by Mr. W. J. Wintemberg, 
in 1913, and a toe bone was also found in a shell-heap on 
Merigomish harbour, on the north coast, by Mr. Harlan 
I. Smith, in 1914. Other bones, supposedly of the same 
species, have also been found in these heaps. These dis- 
coveries indicate the existence of the white-tailed deer in 
Nova Scotia in prehistoric times. The absence of deer 
made it necessary to introduce them into Nova Scotia. 

*Science, N. S., Vol. 49, No. 1275, p. 540, June 6, 1919. 



42 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Mr. Carmen Odell of Annapolis Royal, N. S., who under- 
took the work of introduction, has kindly furnished me 
with the following data: The first introduction took place in 
March, 1896, when nine deer which had been captured in 
Charlotte County, N. B., were liberated in Yarmouth and 
Digby Counties, N. S. Five more were liberated about 
1910. So far as is known there has been no immigration of 
deer into Nova Scotia froni New Brunswick by way of 
Cumberland County, N. S. Following their introduction 
a permanent close season was maintained on deer in Nova 
Scotia until 1916. By that time they had so increased in 
numbers, and in some instances were not only becoming 
somewhat tame, but were also destroying crops in certain 
sections that a short open season of ten days was declared, 
and about 150 deer were reported as having been legally 
killed that year. All the game wardens report an increase 
in numbers and none report decrease. 

In New Brunswick and Quebec the deer are generally 
plentiful and increasing in certain sections. While in parts 
of Ontario the deer have decreased in numbers in recent 
years owing to the ravages of wolves, — which have been 
very destructive where they have been reported, — in most 
districts the deer are plentiful, and in many places they 
are reported to be rapidly increasing in numbers. In all 
parts of their range wherever extensive forest fires have oc- 
curred the numbers of deer have been reduced. 

Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of 
maintaining such protection as is necessary to insure a 
plentiful supply of this excellent food animal, which is 
specially adapted to life in regions bordering settlement.* 
Further, the value of this animal as a means of rendering 
productive vast areas that are unsuited for agriculture, 
such as we find throughout eastern Canada, cannot be too 
often insisted upon. The white-tailed deer affords an im- 
mensely important potential supply of ''wild meat" that is 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 



43 



easily accessible to the people; and the need for such a sup- 
ply was never so pressing as at the present time. The main- 
tenance of adequate protection, especially the protection of 
does, will result in an increase in the number of deer, and 
thus afford a greater number of people the opportunity of 





Fio. 



III.— TAILS OF THE WHITE-TAILED (1), MULE-DEER (2), AND 
COLUMBIA BLACK-TAILED DEER (3) 



supplementing their food supplies. Any relaxation of pro- 
tection would result in a decrease in the deer population 
which it would take years of protection to restore. 



The Mule. Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) 

The mule deer, or ''jumping deer," as it is called in Mani- 
toba on account of its peculiar gait, is larger than the white- 
tailed deer and heavier in build. Its distinguishing char- 
acteristics are the large, broad ears, from which it receives 
its popular name; the rounded, whitish tail with its black 
tip, and the form of its antlers. The antlers of this species 
and of the Columbian black-tail differ markedly from those 
of the white-tailed deer in their size and form. They are 
larger, and are doubly branching. The main beams, instead 



44 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

of being single as in the ease of the white-tailed deer, are 
bifurcated, and each branch is double-pronged. 

Distribution. — Their range extends from southern Mani- 
toba on the east to northern Alberta in the north, and south- 
ern British Columbia in the west. Embracing as they do 
within their range such varied conditions, their habitat 
varies somewhat according to the region they occupy. In 
the eastern part of its range they frequent the low hills, 
especially where they are wooded and provide cover, and in 
the wooded valleys of rivers and streams. In the west they 
occur in the foot-hills and among the open growth of pine 
in the mountains. On the whole, their favourite haunts are 
different from those chosen by the white-tail, being more 
open and exposed. 

Habits. — Their habits are, in general, not very different 
from those of the white-tailed deer. During the winter the 
mixed bands of all ages and sexes wander around together, 
sometimes in large bands, several hundred having been re- 
corded occurring in single bands when they have been plen- 
tiful. When they run fast going down-hill their gait is a 
peculiar bounding motion on all four feet; hence the name 
"jumping deer." 

Abundance. — In Manitoba, Seton states that in 1882 to 
1885 they were very scarce. Owing to the better protec- 
tion that they have received since that time they have 
greatly increased in numbers. Mr. Charles Barber, chief 
game guardian for Manitoba, states that they are now to 
be found in more or less abundance in every part of the 
province, and are increasing in numbers. They are found 
chiefly in the Pembina Hills and that part of the province 
lying between Portage la Prairie and Brandon, through 
which district the Assiniboine River flows. They also oc- 
cur in fair numbers east of the Red River in that section of 
the province through which flow the Brokenhead and WTiite- 
mouth Rivers. In Saskatchewan they are reported by Mr. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 45 

F. Bradshaw, the chief game warden, to be increasing in 
the closed territory south of township 34. Very few sports- 
men are said to hunt deer in Saskatchewan while moose and 
wapiti are available. Four hundred and seventy-eight deer 
were killed in 1916. 

In Alberta the following figures indicate the extent to 
which deer have been killed under license since 1907: 

1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 
59 125 299 540 619 768 908 1388 692 560 705 828 

But these figures do not represent the actual numbers 
killed, as no returns are available north of the fifty-fifth 
parallel. 

The mule deer is found in the valley of the Peace River. 
Preble states: 

In the summer of 1895, J. Alden Loring reported seeing a doe of this 
species at Jasper House; and he observed many tracks in the vicinity 
of Henry House. In July, 1896, he saw fresh tracks along the stream in 
the valley 15 miles south of Henry House. He reported the species rare 
between Jasper House and Smoky River, but saw tracks on the Grand 
Cache River and the north bank of the Smoky River in the early autumn; 
and saw tracks of two bands in the mountains west of Henry House 
about the middle of October. J. T. Edmonton assured me that during 
the fall of 1897 a few black-tailed deer frequented the vicinity of Stony 
Rapid, on the Athabaska, about 200 miles (by the river) below Athabaska 
Landing. 

In the Rocky Mountains Park, mule deer are increasing 
in numbers, and may be seen almost any day in the vicinity 
of most of the public roads and trails. They are also in- 
creasing in abundance in the Waterton Lakes Park. 

The provincial game warden for British Columbia, in his 
report for 1916, states that: "Last winter severe weather 
caused a great mortality amongst deer of all species, es- 
pecially in some of the coast inlets; and in parts of the in- 
terior the mule deer were also terribly harassed by coyotes. 



46 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

The regulation prohibiting the sale of venison was a great 
help, and was almost universally approved of. . . . In 
the Lillooet district mule deer have greatly decreased, 
partly due to the bad winter, coyotes, etc., but more to the 
fact that the Chilcotin Indians are killing far too many, 
and it is impossible to stop them until the district is declared 
organized." 

Columbian Black-tailed Deer (Odocoileus 
columbianus) 

This species bears a marked resemblance to the mule 
deer, but it is very much smaller. It has only moderately 
large ears and antlers with double-forked beams; but it is 
distinguished from the mule deer by its black tail. It un- 
dergoes the usual seasonal changes of coat colour common 
to the other species, and its characteristic home is in the 
moist forests of cedar, douglas fir, and spruce of the Pacific 
coast, where it is found as far north as Alaska. 

Many of these deer succumb to the deep snows of winter, 
which render them easy prey both to predatory animals 
and to the Indians. 

MOOSE 

(plate ii) 

Throughout the wide breadth of Canada this magnificent 
game animal roams in our northern forests that constitute 
its natural home. From the forest-clad mountains of the 
Yukon and northern British Columbia to the ocean-girt 
woods of Nova Scotia this strange-looking animal, that 
first astonished the early French pioneers and evoked the 
significant name of 'Torignal," may be found wherever the 
sohtude of trees or tree-lined lake or swamp provides the 
needed retreat. It is too well known to require descrip- 
tion, and its enormous size, usually surpassing that of a 



PLATE II 




MOOSE 




WOODLAND CARIBOU 

From paintings by Carl Rungius. Reproduced by courtesy of the New York 
Zoological Society 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 47 

horse, the immense spread of broad antlers and the pecu- 
Harly elongated head are familiar to all Canadians. Moose 
have been killed in New Brunswick measuring seven feet 
in height at the shoulders and bearing antlers sixty-eight 
and one-quarter inches broad. The antlers of the Alaskan 
race of moose sometimes measure over six feet across. 

It is the North American representative of the largest 
member of the deer family. In northern Europe and Si- 
beria it is known as the elk, Alces being the generic name 
of this animal, of which three species are found in the 
northern forests of the old and new worlds. It is unfor- 
tunate that the name ''elk" has been given in North America 
to the wapiti. 

Our North American moose is the most abundant and 
widely distributed species of its genus. We have no large 
game animal in the possession of which we have greater 
reason to be proud. Affording as it does such an excellent 
trophy, it is eagerly sought by the big-game hunter and 
sportsman. To the Indians of our northern woods it fur- 
nishes at the same time food and clothing. It is an animal 
which deserves on all grounds the best protection that can 
be given. 

The provincial governments in most cases are wisely de- 
voting their earnest endeavours to its protection, and, in the 
case of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, with apparent suc- 
cess. It is essential, however, that greater attention should 
be paid by all the provincial governments to the habitual 
disregard of their regulations, particularly in districts where 
lumbering operations are conducted. We are constantly 
in receipt of authentic reports that moose are killed in large 
numbers to supply meat to lumber camps. Such destruc- 
tion is as inexcusable as it is unnecessary. It could be 
stopped, and one would think it needless to point out that 
unless such a reprehensible practice is checked serious de- 
crease in the abundance of this animal will result. Any 



48 CONSERVATION OP CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

government that is determined to conserve its supply of 
moose has the power and means to effect such conservation. 
The responsibility in this matter lies with the governments 
concerned. 

Distribution and Abundance. — In Nova Scotia the moose 
are increasing in number, owing to the prohibition of the 
killing of cow moose which has been in effect since 1909. 
The following figures of the number of moose killed each 
season since that date illustrate the wisdom of the enforce- 
ment of such a provision as a means of conserving this or 
any other member of the deer family: 

NUMBER OF MALE MOOSE KILLED 

1909 405 1914 1,091 

1910 509 1915 1,218 

1911 617 1916 1,331 

1912 678 1917 1,363 

1913 704 1918 1,243 

New Brunswick has a well-deserved reputation as a moose 
country. The greater portion of the province contains the 
most favoured resorts of this animal, which flourishes under 
the protection that is given to it by the provincial govern- 
ment, although there is still too much illegal slaughter 
taking place. The fact that the largest heads of Canadian 
moose are taken in this province attracts many sportsmen 
each year from the United States, where in the neighbour- 
ing State of Maine improvident slaughter has had the in- 
evitable results. 

In Quebec the best moose territories are in the counties 
of Pontiac and Timiskaming in the west; the St. Maurice 
and St. John region in the north-central portion; and in the 
counties of Bonaventure and Gaspe in the east. The super- 
intendent of game and fisheries informs me that the moose 
in these regions are increasing; fine heads are secured each 
year. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA • 49 

Throughout the northern region of Ontario moose are 
plentiful, and appear to be maintaining their numbers. In 
certain good moose districts, such as the Port Arthur, Rainy- 
River, and Thunder Bay regions, particularly in the Nipigon 
Forest Reserve, moose are not only very plentiful but are 
increasing in numbers, and fine heads are annually secured. 
The openmg up of new regions by the National Transconti- 
nental and Timiskaming and Northern Ontario Railways 
has resulted in a diminution of moose in certain districts, 
and increased vigilance in their protection is desirable in 
the regions now more easily accessible. In certain districts 
adjoining the Transcontinental Railway, where moose are 
fairly plentiful, many are killed during the winter and are 
made a source of meat for the settlements all winter. The 
meat is sold at prices usually varying from five to ten cents 
per pound, which is cheaper than other forms of meat. 

In Manitoba the chief game guardian reports that moose 
are plentiful in the north and northwestern portion of the 
province, and also in the east and southeast. Cows are 
said to be more numerous than bulls. During the last few 
springs a considerable number of moose have been found 
dead, their emaciated condition indicating food shortage. 
In addition, many of these animals were very severely in- 
fested with ticks. Specimens of these have been submitted 
to me and proved to be Dermacentor albipictus Packard. 
This species of tick was first discovered on moose, and there 
is little doubt that severe infestation of such ticks was re- 
sponsible for the death of numerous moose whose vitality 
had been reduced by shortage of food or other causes. 

The northern woods of Saskatchewan, west and north of 
Prince Albert, and stretching westward north of Battle- 
ford, are well supplied with moose, which is the chief game 
animal of the province. The latest reports appear to indi- 
cate that they are not so plentiful as formerly. For this 
reason the recent amendment of the provincial game laws, 



50 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

which permits the killing of one cow moose each year, is 
not a wise policy from the standpoint of the protection of 
this animal, and it is hoped that the increase that has been 
secured in the Maritime Provinces as a result of the pro- 
tection of the cow moose will serve to indicate the desira- 
bility of prohibiting the slaughter of females. If this is not 
done, a continued decrease in numbers will undoubtedly 
follow. In certain districts in Saskatchewan the moose 
have suffered severely from the same species of ticks found 
attacking moose in Manitoba. An account of the occur- 
rence of this pest is given in the annual report of the chief 
game guardian of Saskatchewan for 1916 (pp. 22-25). 

In Alberta moose appear to be decreasing in numbers, 
the decrease being probably due to the extension north- 
ward of the agricultural areas and to excessive killing. The 
following are the returns of moose killed under license since 
1907:* 

1907 14 1913 865 

1908 37 1914 1,335 

1909 86 1915 1,116 

1910 184 1916 849 

1911 305 1917 1,026 

1912 425 1918 900 

These figures by no means represent the total number of 
animals killed, as practically no figures are available from 
districts north of the fifty-fifth parallel. 

The number of moose in the Northwest Territories is 
decreasing annually. Writing in 1905 {loc. cit.) MacFarlane 
states : 

This valuable food animal used to be very common in the Peace River, 
and, indeed, throughout the forest region of the northern portion of the 
"Great Mackenzie Basin"; but for the last twenty years it has been 

* The apparent increase in numbers indicated by these figures is probably 
accounted for by the fact that more accurate returns of the number killed 
have been secured each year. 



1 



1 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 51 

much less abundant, and, indeed, remarkably scarce in many parts, es- 
pecially along the Athabaska, Peace, Liard, and other rivers, and the large 
lakes of the North. As moose have since been found more or less plenti- 
ful in the eastern, western, and southern sections of the territory where 
for many years previously they were rather rare or conspicuous by their 
absence, it is now supposed by some observing natives and others that 
considerable numbers of them must have migrated southward, partic- 
ularly during the remarkably mild winter of 1877-78. Be that as it 
may, it has been noticed that at intervals, and for several years at a 
time, this animal has been rather scarce in various sections where it had 
formerly been fairly abundant. 

One of the chief factors that have been responsible for 
the disappearance or reduction in numbers of moose in many- 
parts of the Northwest Territories has been the destruc- 
tion of their former haunts by extensive forest fires, which, 
as I have repeatedly pointed out, constitute one of the 
chief means of destroying the haunts of big game and fur- 
bearing animals. 

A very complete account of the history and distribution 
of the moose in the Northwest Territories is given by 
Preble in his unusually valuable memoir on the mammals 
of the Athabaska-Mackenzie region.* The following ex- 
tracts are taken from the account he gives of his own ob- 
servations and those of other travellers and explorers: 

''The moose occurs throughout the Athabaska and Mac- 
kenzie region north to the limit of trees." In 1901 it was 
recorded near Boiler Rapid, Athabaska River. Tracks of 
moose were seen on Slave River, ten miles below the mouth 
of the Peace, and on the islands between there and Smith 
Landing. Tracks were also seen while descending the 
Athabaska and Slave Rivers to Great Slave Lake. ''In the 
lake country between Fort Rae and Great Bear Lake . . . 
the moose was found to be rather common and became more 

* "A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie Region," North 
American Fauna, No. 27, Biological Survey, U. S. Department oj Agriculture, 
1908. 



52 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

abundant as we approached Great Bear Lake, owing to the 
country being better suited to its needs. . . . Along the 
southern shore of Great Bear Lake we found it a common 
and in some places an abundant species." There are im- 
mense areas abounding with proper food for this animal in 
the latter region, and where the native population is sparse 
and poor moose hunters, the moose flourish. In the winter 
of 1903-4 they were abundant near Fort Simpson, and 
while descending the Mackenzie in June their tracks were 
frequently seen and some animals were observed. Tracks 
were common along the lower Nahanni, and two animals 
were seen in this vicinity early in June. On the lower 
Mackenzie moose were seen a few miles below the site of 
old Fort Good Hope. They are fairly common in the 
vicinity of Fort McPherson. "In the mountains west of 
the Mackenzie, where the snow becomes very deep during 
some seasons, moose are said to form yards, but they do 
not seem to have this habit in other parts of the region." 

"While exploring in the country between Athabaska 
Lake and Churchill River in the summer of 1892, J. B. 
Tyrrell found that moose occurred throughout the more 
thickly wooded parts of this country as far north as Stone 
River, near the eastern end of Athabaska Lake." A. J. 
Stone gives evidence of the large size and abundance of the 
moose at the headwaters of the Nahanni River. Between 
Smoky River and Jasper House moose were abundant in 
1896. J. W. Tyrrell found evidences of moose on the upper 
Thelon River in 1900. Hanbury found tracks of moose in 
August, 1902, while descending Dease River, northwest of 
Great Bear Lake. 

Mr. H. T. Bury, of the Department of Indian Affairs, 
reported to me in 1915 as follows: 

The moose is found, generally speaking, over the whole of the southern 
section of this country (Northwest Territories and northern Alberta) 
south of the Great Slave Lake, and also inhabits that section enclosed by 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 53 

the valleys of the larger tributaries of the Mackenzie River. There does 
not seem to have been any great diminution in their numbers during past 
years, although they represent to the Indians during the summer months 
a very convenient means of food, and, in consequence, are killed in an 
indiscriminate manner. 

They are accustomed to roam the swamps and inaccessible parts of the 
country, either singly or in pairs, and it required a considerable amount 
of skill, energy, and perseverance to encompass the death of one of these 
members of the deer family. They are accustomed to roam the spruce 
forests during the winter, occasionally seeking the sheltered side of a 
coulee to feed upon the shoots of alder and willow. . . . During the 
summer months they are more nomadic in character, rarely remaining 
in one locality for a very long time, except for the purpose of haunting 
the vicinity of a small lake or stream. ... It is only by the exercise of 
a good deal of stealth and ingenuity that the local Indians can arrive 
sufficiently close to them in summer months to achieve their destruction. 
Probably the district which is the natural habitat of these animals is that 
comprised within the limits of the Athabaska River. There does not 
appear to be as yet any considerable reason for fearing a serious diminu- 
tion in the numbers of the moose, although it would seem advisable in 
the course of time to have more specific regulations regarding the killing 
of these animals during the close season. 

In the discussion following my address on "The Conser- 
vation of Northern Mammals," at the seventh annual 
meeting of the Commission of Conservation in 1916, Doctor 
C. W. Wilson, Assistant Surgeon R. N. W. M. Police, stated : 
"Where moose were quite plentiful, in the region included 
withia the delta of the Mackenzie, the greater destruction 
has been due to the trading companies, for instance the 
Hudson's Bay Company. Two Indians told me that they 
supphed/the Company's post with two hundred carcasses 
a year, of moose alone. The result is that very seldom is 
a moose seen in that whole district at the present time." 

The condition of moose in British Columbia is encour- 
aging from the reports of Mr. Bryan Williams, the former 
provincial game warden. In his annual report for 1914 he 
states: "In the north the moose seem to be on the increase, 
and spreading down farther to the south. This year a 



54 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

few of these animals made their appearance close down to 
the Chilcotin River, which is the farthest south in this 
direction they have ever been reported. In East Kootenay 
some of the finest moose ever known in that district have 
been killed this season, three of them with antlers measur- 
ing 53M, 58, and 60 inches, respectively. Until this year it 
has been the general opinion that the East Kootenay moose 
never had horns of large dimensions, and a 45-inch head 
was considered a good one for that district. There is no 
doubt that in former years the bulls never got a chance to 
grow big horns, as they were all shot too soon ; but with the 
better protection they have had during the past few years 
there is an improvement, and the value of the game in East 
Kootenay has been greatly increased." 

In 1915 Mr. Williams reports on the moose as follows: 
''These magnificent animals continue to work their way 
south, and are increasing rapidly almost everywhere. There 
is one exception to this, and that is on the Nelson River, 
where they are reported to be very scarce, and the Indians 
are suffering in consequence. Reports from Cassiar varied 
somewhat, but the men who are in the best positions to 
know say they were extra numerous, but that there is an 
extraordinary percentage of young bulls. That there are 
plenty of moose in that country can be easily believed 
from the fact that one tourist counted 280 odd during the 
short time he was there. A bull moose was lately seen as 
far south as the 108-mile House, on the Cariboo Road. 
Signs of others were seen a little farther south." 

From the foregoing account of the distribution and 
abundance of moose in different regions of Canada it will 
be seen that, with the exception of the Prairie Provinces, 
this noble animal not only appears to be holding its own 
but owing to adequate protection it is possible to record 
an increase in certain of those regions of Canada that com- 
prise its finest natural haunts and hunting-grounds. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 55 

Habits. — The moose is essentially a forest-dwelling animal, 
frequenting the densest of our coniferous forests, and the 
woods of birch and poplar. In the summer it resorts more 
especially to the neighbourhood of swamps and secluded 
lakes and pools, and here it wades deep into the water to 
feed on the juicy leaves and stems of aquatic plants. It is 
distinctly a browsing animal, as the structure of its head 
and lips shows ; and properly speaking it does not graze like 
other members of the deer family. Its normal food con- 
sists of the leaves, twigs, and bark of various trees, such as 
spruce, hemlock, birch, alder, willow, maple, etc., and also 
lichens. When deep snow covers the ground its movements 
are more restricted, and the well-trodden paths and areas 
that it forms in the snow constitute the well-known moose 
''yards." 

In the fall the ''rutting" season begins when the bulls, 
which during the summer have roamed about in solitary 
state, set forth to seek their mates. The deep guttural call 
or bellow that he utters as a call may be answered by the 
higher-toned reply of the cow, or a challenging grunt of a 
rival. In the latter case a fierce combat may not infre- 
quently follow, or the bull may be lured into an open spot 
and to his death by the closely simulated call produced by 
the birch horn of the hunter. At this time the bulls are 
bold; they lose their shyness of the summer and, bold in 
behaviour, they will sometimes fiercely attack an intruder, 
as many a hunter has reason to know. The bull mates 
with but a single cow, and is strictly monogamous. About 
the end of May the young are born. The cow produces 
one calf the first time, and usually two in subsequent years; 
and, rarely, three are bom. The young accompany the 
mother during the first year, and during the winter the 
moose family live together, the parents leaving the young 
during the early spring. 

The young bull moose grows his first pair of spike-like 



56 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

horns during the second summer, and these are shed in the 
following spring, when a longer pair take their place. The 
palmation of the horns commences with the third pair, 
which are shed in the spring of the following year. As the 
horns become larger and more widely palmated with each 
succeeding year, they are dropped earlier, in January or 
February. The horns are fully developed about the seventh 
year; and old vigorous bulls may drop their horns as early 
as December. 

Value. — As a game animal the value of the moose is, per- 
haps, unexcelled by any of our larger mammals, and its 
wide distribution in regions that are comparatively acces- 
sible to the residents of most of our larger cities and towns, 
particularly in eastern Canada, enhances its recreative value. 

Its value as a source of meat needs no emphasis. With- 
out the moose the Indians in many parts of Canada would 
face a serious shortage of food, for in many places it is the 
chief wild-meat supply. In civilized communities, too, it 
forms not an unimportant part of the meat supply dur- 
ing the open season, and the wise system of protection that 
is being followed in many provinces will undoubtedly re- 
sult in an increase of this important adjunct to our meat 
supply. At the same time this fine animal will afford thou- 
sands of Canadians a great incentive to seek recreation in 
the forest solitudes that form its haunts. 

THE BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU 
(plates III, IV, AND V) 

Now that the buffalo has disappeared from our prairies 
the barren-ground caribou constitutes, I believe, the most 
abundant of the larger land mammals in the world. In its 
extraordinary habit of migrating hundreds of miles twice a 
year it affords a unique phenomenon. As the buffalo 
formerly ranged the western prairies in millions, so in like 



58 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

abundance the barren-ground caribou now ranges the vast, 
uninhabited northlands of Canada, which we have wrongly 
called the Barren Grounds. 

Like the buffalo they furnish the native inhabitants of 
the territories that they occupy with meat and clothing, 
and, finally, like the buffalo soon after the middle of the 
last century, their numbers are decreasing with the advent 
of the white man and his rifle, and their range is becoming 
restricted by excessive slaughter. Again, the fallacy of be- 
lieving that excessive numbers of an animal is a reason 
against its extermination is being demonstrated. But in 
the case of the barren-ground caribou we can yet save it 
from extermination by a wise course of conservation, and 
increase its value as one of the most important natural re- 
sources of the north. 

The caribou and the fur-bearing animals are the only 
superterranean natural resources of the north that can be 
utiUzed at the present time. As will be shown later, the 
natives of that enormous area, both Indians and Eskimos, 
depend upon the caribou for food and clothing. Any ex- 
ploration of the country is dependent upon this source of 
meat. Without the caribou, travel in that region would be 
almost impossible, and the natives would either starve or 
become a public charge on the government. 

In the case of an animal extending over such an enormous 
area it is natural that distinct races should have developed, 
and, although we are not concerned here with the different 
forms, and shall include them all under the one name, it 
may be pointed out in passing that at least four distinct 
forms have been recognized and given specific rank. These 
are the true barren-ground caribou {Rangifer arcticus), 
which is the caribou of our Canadian Barren Grounds; 
Grant's caribou {Rangifer granti), found in the Alaskan 
peninsula; and the more northerly forms, Peary's caribou 
{Rangifer pearyi), inhabiting Ellesmere Island, and the 



PLATE III 




BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU 




MUSK-OX 

From photographs of groups in the American Museum of Natural History, 
duced by courtesy of the Museum 



Repro- 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 59 

Greenland caribou {Rangifer groenlandicus) . The North 
American caribou are closely related to the reindeer of 
northern Asia and Europe, from the common ancestral 
stock of which they are probably derived. 

Distribution. — The barren-ground caribou was formerly 
far more abundant and its distribution was more extensive 
than at the present time, as the records of the earlier ex- 
plorers and navigators prove. It extended from the Arctic 
shores of Alaska on the west to the Hudson Bay and Lab- 
rador on the east, and from the islands of the Arctic in the 
north it ranged as far south as the northern fringe of the 
timbered areas of northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 
this vast area enormous herds of hundreds of thousands 
moved back and forth like the tides of an enormous sea of 
animal life, at the bidding of some strange wandering im- 
pulse; and this ceaseless semi-annual movement continues 
year after year. 

From the Arctic coasts of Alaska the caribou have virtu- 
ally disappeared. When the American traders and whalers, 
visiting those regions, armed the Eskimos for the purpose of 
hunting meat for the whaling-fleets, the fate of the caribou 
was sealed. The coastal herds of caribou were exterminated 
about twelve years ago, and now the caribou herds are very 
scarce west of the Mackenzie River, and as far east as 
Langton Bay. With the disappearance of the caribou in 
that area the native inhabitants have been compelled to 
leave, and many migrated eastward to the Mackenzie 
delta. And now, I am informed by Doctor R. M. Ander- 
son, who has spent seven years in that region (1908-12 
and 1913-16), that, owing to the scarcity of caribou east 
and west of the Mackenzie delta, the Eskimos of that 
region have for some time been unable to supply themselves 
with more than a small portion of the skins needed for their 
clothing, the deficit being made up by ihe purchase of domestic 
reindeer skins imported from western Alaska and northeastern 



60 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Siberia by trading-vessels. The significance of these facts is 
surely too plain to require comment. 

Doctor Anderson reports that from Franklin Bay to Dol- 
phin and Union Strait there is an uninhabited stretch with 
httle game. In the Victoria Island and Coronation Gulf 
region caribou are found to be fairly common in the summer, 
supplying food and winter clothing for a considerable na- 
tive population. The caribou largely migrate to the main- 
land in November, returning to the north again in April 
and May, although Mr. Stefansson informs me that cari- 
bou may be found in the western part of Victoria Island 
during the winter, and along the shores of Prince Albert 
Sound. The centre of the crossing place of the caribou from 
western Victoria Island is in the region of Bernard Harbour, 
and here the Hudson's Bay Company established a trading- 
post in 1916.* 

In their migrations south the caribou reach Fond-du-lac, 
at the east end of Athabaska Lake. They travel as far 
south as Reindeer Lake in northern Saskatchewan. Nearly 
every year they come down to Fort Smith, which would 
appear to be the southwestern limit to their migration. 

In the Yukon Territory fairly large herds of caribou are 
still to be found. Mr. George Black, commissioner of the 
Yukon, has informed me that a large herd of several thou- 
sand annually visits the region adjoining Dawson, Yukon. 
Osgoodf states that these Alaska- Yukon caribou ''scatter 
widely in the summer and in the fall collect in herds, often 

* Later advices from the Coronation Gulf region give the information that, 
from 1917 to 1919, trading-posts were established at the mouth of the Copper- 
mine River, Tree River, and on Kent Peninsula, and that practically all the 
natives have been suppUed with rifles. A considerable portion of the Copper 
Eskimos have also been induced by the traders to give up winter seaUng and 
to live on the land in winter, trapping foxes and shooting caribou. This un- 
precedented change of habits was particularly noted around Dease Strait and 
the Kent Peninsula, which is the main crossing-place for the caribou from the 
eastern portion of Victoria Island. — R. M. A. 

t "The Game Resources of Alaska," by W. H. Osgood. Yearbook, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, 1907, pp. 469-482. 



PLATE IV 




From a photograph by F. K. Vrecland 

OSBORN'S MOUNTAIN CARIBOU IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, ABOUT 
FIFTEEN MILES NORTHWEST OF MOUNT SIR ALEXANDER 




From a photograph hij E. It. Sanborn. Courtesy of New York Zoological Park 
HERD OF CAPTIVE MUSK-OXEN IN NEW YORK ZOOLOGICAL PARK 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 73 

nailing apparatus to other members of the herd, and all 
observers have testified as to the value of this natural 
heliograph. 

Habits. — In the days of antelope abundance they formed 
herds varying in numbers from a few individuals to several 
hundred during the fall, and these herds consisted of adults 
of both sexes and young. In September or October the 
bucks vigorously contest for the possession of the does, and 
soon the most vigorous bucks have rounded up their small 
bands of chosen does. With the advent of winter the herds 
migrate, sometimes for a hundred miles or more, to seek the 
more sheltered regions of their range in the low hills and 
foot-hills, and here among the coulees they pass the winter. 
To-day these herds do not often number more than about 
fifty animals. 

With the return of spring the herds split up. The does 
seek such solitude as they may be able to find, and in 
May or June they give birth, usually to two fawns, which 
remain with their mother all summer. In the fall the 
males drift in again, and the seasonal life history is re- 
peated. 

It is a singular fact that it is practically impossible to 
keep the antelope in captivity. Hornaday, who has had 
great experience in this respect, states: "Owing to the ex- 
treme difficulty in maintaining this species in captivity, its 
total extinction at an early date seems absolutely certain, 
unless it is fully and permanently protected in a wild state, 
on its native range, for a long period." 

Distribution and Abundance in Canada. — In Canada it 
formerly ranged, probably in an abundance almost equal 
to that of the buffalo, from southern Manitoba westward 
to the Rocky Mountains and northward as far as Edmon- 
ton. Seton* gives what would appear to be the last record 
of the occurrence of the antelope in Manitoba, where it is 

* "Life Histories of Northern Animals," vol. I, pp. 215-216. 



74 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

now extinct. He says: ''J. T. Brondgeest, of Whitewater, 
Man., tells me that he first came to Whitewater in 1879, 
and settled down in the fall of 1880, and that in those days 
there were plenty of antelope about, but the last he saw was 
killed by his father in 1881." 

To-day the antelope in Canada are confined to those 
areas in the southern portion of Saskatchewan and Alberta 
that have not been devoted to wheat-growing. From the 
inquiries that I have made, I do not think that there are more 
than about 3,000 animals now remaining in those provinces, 
and of this number the greater portion exists in Saskatche- 
wan. In the latter province Mr. F. Bradshaw, the chief 
game guardian, informs me that the existing antelope are 
to be found mainly in the following districts: the Great 
Sand Hills north of Maple Creek and Crane Lake; the Ver- 
milion Hills between Ernfold, on the main line of the 
Canadian Pacific Railway, and the South Saskatchewan 
River; on the east of Lake Chaplin, south of Secretan on 
the main line of the C. P. R. ; southeast of Cypress Hills and 
adjoining the Whitemud River; and northwest and south 
of Wood Mountain. The last three localities are in a region 
that is chiefly devoted to cattle-ranching, and it is encour- 
aging to know that, according to Mr. Bradshaw, the own- 
ers of the cattle ranges in which the antelope are to be 
found, particularly in the Pinto Creek section of southern 
Saskatchewan, are doing what they can to protect the an- 
telope found on their ranges, where they mingle with the 
cattle. It is of interest to record that Mr. Reuben Lloyd, 
of Davidson, Sask., has in a small fifteen-acre private game 
reserve, three male and one female antelope, and in 1916 
the latter gave birth to the two fawns which are shown on 
Plate XIII. 

In southern Alberta a few small herds may be found in 
the rolling hills, and the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains 
that are remote from settled areas. In both provinces the 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 59 

Greenland caribou {Rangifer groenlandicus) . The North 
American caribou are closely related to the reindeer of 
northern Asia and Europe, from the common ancestral 
stock of which they are probably derived. 

Distribution. — The barren-ground caribou was formerly 
far more abundant and its distribution was more extensive 
than at the present time, as the records of the earlier ex- 
plorers and navigators prove. It extended from the Arctic 
shores of Alaska on the west to the Hudson Bay and Lab- 
rador on the east, and from the islands of the Arctic in the 
north it ranged as far south as the northern fringe of the 
timbered areas of northern Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 
this vast area enormous herds of hundreds of thousands 
moved back and forth like the tides of an enormous sea of 
animal life, at the bidding of some strange wandering im- 
pulse; and this ceaseless semi-annual movement continues 
year after year. 

From the Arctic coasts of Alaska the caribou have virtu- 
ally disappeared. When the American traders and whalers, 
visiting those regions, armed the Eskimos for the purpose of 
hunting meat for the whaling-fleets, the fate of the caribou 
was sealed. The coastal herds of caribou were exterminated 
about twelve years ago, and now the caribou herds are very 
scarce west of the Mackenzie River, and as far east as 
Langton Bay. With the disappearance of the caribou in 
that area the native inhabitants have been compelled to 
leave, and many migrated eastward to the Mackenzie 
delta. And now, I am informed by Doctor R. M. Ander- 
son, who has spent seven years in that region (1908-12 
and 1913-16), that, owing to the scarcity of caribou east 
and west of the Mackenzie delta, the Eskimos of that 
region have for some time been unable to supply themselves 
with more than a small portion of the skins needed for their 
clothing, the deficit being made up by ihe purchase of domestic 
reindeer skins imported from western Alaska and northeastern 



60 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Siberia by trading-vessels. The significance of these facts is 
surely too plain to require comment. 

Doctor Anderson reports that from Franklin Bay to Dol- 
phin and Union Strait there is an uninhabited stretch with 
little game. In the Victoria Island and Coronation Gulf 
region caribou are found to be fairly common in the sunomer, 
supplying food and winter clothing for a considerable na- 
tive population. The caribou largely migrate to the main- 
land in November, returning to the north again in April 
and May, although Mr. Stefansson informs me that cari- 
bou may be found in the western part of Victoria Island 
during the winter, and along the shores of Prince Albert 
Sound. The centre of the crossing place of the caribou from 
western Victoria Island is in the region of Bernard Harbour, 
and here the Hudson's Bay Company established a trading- 
post in 1916.* 

In their migrations south the caribou reach Fond-du-lac, 
at the east end of Athabaska Lake. They travel as far 
south as Reindeer Lake in northern Saskatchewan. Nearly 
every year they come down to Fort Smith, which would 
appear to be the southwestern limit to their migration. 

In the Yukon Territory fairly large herds of caribou are 
still to be found. Mr. George Black, commissioner of the 
Yukon, has informed me that a large herd of several thou- 
sand annually visits the region adjoining Dawson, Yukon. 
Osgoodf states that these Alaska- Yukon caribou '' scatter 
widely in the summer and in the fall collect in herds, often 

* Later advices from the Coronation Gulf region give the information that, 
from 1917 to 1919, trading-posts were established at the mouth of the Copper- 
mine River, Tree River, and on Kent Peninsula, and that practically all the 
natives have been supplied with rifles. A considerable portion of the Copper 
Eskimos have also been induced by the traders to give up winter sealing and 
to live on the land in winter, trapping foxes and shooting caribou. This un- 
precedented change of habits was particularly noted around Dease Strait and 
the Kent Peninsula, which is the main crossing-place for the caribou from the 
eastern portion of Victoria Island. — R. M. A. 

t "The Game Resources of Alaska," by W. H. Osgood. Yearbook, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, 1907, pp. 469-482. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 61 

very large, but at all times they roam widely. The great 
herds in the fall of the year perform a more or less regular 
movement in the nature of migrations, and within certain 
limits their course of travel and times of arrival at given 
points are well known." This coincides with the informa- 
tion that I have received from Mi. Black, Doctor Alfred 
Thompson, M.P., and other local observers. It is probable 
that the greater certainty with which the migratory move- 
ments of these herds in the Yukon can be predicted, as 
compared with the caribou of the Barren Grounds of the 
Northwest Territories, is due to the difference in the topog- 
raphy of the country, and the greater restriction in possible 
routes of travel in the Yukon. In connection with these 
smaller herds in the Alaska- Yukon region it is important 
to remember that too much confidence should not be placed 
in the presence of such herds as indications of a wide spread, 
as there is a tendency among such gregarious animals to 
band together more readily when their numbers become 
more decreased, and thus a false impression of abundance 
may be given. 

Migratory and Other Habits. — The most remarkable habit 
displayed by the barren-ground caribou is its periodical 
migrations southward in autumn and northward in the 
spring. During the summer time they keep to the open 
barren ground and the sea-coast. Here they find abundance 
of food, such as tender grasses, the shoots and buds of 
dwarf birch and willow, and they are able to escape to some 
extent their insect tormentors. In the autumn they turn 
southward towards the woods, and the winter is spent in 
these regions that provide shelter and food, such as moss, 
lichens, and tree-buds. The males are in very poor condi- 
tion towards the end of October, after the rutting season, 
their horns being at their best towards the end of Sep- 
tember. About a month later the males and females sepa- 
rate, and, according to Warburton Pike, who made valu- 



62 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

able observations on the habits of these animals, the latter 
begin to travel northward as early as the end of February. 
They reach the edge of the woods in April. Tyrrell, who 
also added much to our knowledge of the barren-ground 
caribou, states that the young, to the number of one to 
three, are born before the winter quarters are vacated. 
Pike informs us that the young are born in June, after the 
northward migration has taken place. The males remain 
in the woods till May, but meet the females on their way 
inland from the coast at the end of July, from which time 
they stay together till the rutting season is over, and the 
southern journey is again begun. 

Unlike other deer, both sexes bear antlers, but the antlers 
of the female are rather smaller and more slender than those 
of the male, which may bear, according to Tyrrell's obser- 
vations, as many as twenty-two prongs on one beam. 

One of the best descriptions of the migration of the cari- 
bou is given by Warburton Pike, who witnessed the south- 
ward migration at Camsell Lake, near the east end of Great 
Slave Lake, in 1889. After describing the excitement 
caused by the approach of '4a foule," as the mass of mi- 
grating animals are commonly called in the north, he 
says :* 

From the ridge we had a splendid view of the migration. All the 
south side of Mackay Lake was alive with moving beasts, while the ice 
seemed to be dotted all over with black islands, and still away on the 
north shore, with the aid of glasses, we could see them coming like regi- 
ments on the march. In every direction we could hear the grunting 
noise that the caribou always makes when travelling. 

The snow was broken into broad roads and I found it useless to try to 
estimate the number that passed within a few miles of the encampment. 
We were just on the western edge of their passage and afterwards we 
heard that a band of Dog-Ribs hunting some forty miles to the west 
were at this time in the last straits of starvation, only saving their lives 
by a hasty retreat to the woods. 

* "The Barren Ground of Northern Canada," by Warburton Pike, p. 89. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 63 

Pike concludes his account by expressing the belief that the 
herds of buffalo could not have surpassed in size '*la foule" 
of the caribou. 

J. B. Tyrrell has described an enormous herd of caribou, 
consisting of several thousand animals — males, females, and 
fawns — which he saw on July 30, 1893, at Carey Lake, where 
he obtained what are undoubtedly the best photographs 
hitherto taken of this caribou, two of which are reproduced 
herewith. He describes ''many great bands literally cover- 
ing the country over wide areas. The valleys and hill- 
sides for miles appeared to be moving masses of caribou. 
To estimate their numbers would be impossible. They 
could only be reckoned in acres or square miles." He 
found, as Pike also found, that when they occur in such 
enormous numbers they are quite tame. 

The magnitude of the migration, both as regards numbers 
involved and extent of area, has led many to assume that 
all the caribou migrate. But apparently this is not so, as 
the observations of Hanbury* and others conclusively prove. 
Large numbers remain in the north throughout the year. 
Hanbury shot caribou along the west coast of Hudson Bay 
and the coasts of Chesterfield Inlet during the winter, and 
caribou were found on the Arctic coast during the winter 
months. These non-migrating animals merely wander 
about. 

Another point of interest is that, while their migratory 
movements are very regular in point of time, the routes 
they take are not always the same, and they travel gener- 
ally in a northerly or southerly direction. Their course 
cannot be predicted with any degree of certainty. They 
seldom follow the same course in two consecutive years. 
The Indians, such as the Yellow-knives and Dog-ribs, who 
are dependent upon the caribou to so great an extent for 

* See "Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada," by David T. Han- 
bury, pp. 120 et seq. 



64 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

food, with all their experience of the caribou are sometimes 
unable to find them where they might be expected, with 
the result that distress and starvation follow. 

Economic Value of Caribou. — In an earlier chapter the 
value of the caribou as a source of meat was discussed. 
Perhaps no native wild animal is economically so important 
and generally useful as the barren-ground caribou. With- 
out it enormous areas of our northern territory would be- 
come practically uninhabitable. It supplies the Indians 
and Eskimos with almost all the necessaries of life: food, 
clothing, shelter, and means to trade at the trading-post. 
An excellent description of the utihzation of the caribou by 
the Indians is given by Warburton Pike. Describing the 
Indians' departure to the hunting-ground, he says:* 

He leaves the trading-post, after one of his yearly visits, with a supply 
of ammunition, tea, and tobacco, a blanket or two, and, if he has made 
a good season's hunt, is perhaps lucky enough to have taken one of the 
Company's duffel capotes (about the best form of greatcoat I have ever 
seen) . He has a wife and family waiting for him somewhere on the shore 
of the big lake where fish are plentiful, expecting a gaudy dress, a shawl, 
or a string of beads from the fort, but relying entirely on the caribou for 
maintenance during the awful cold of the coming winter. The journey 
up till they fall in with the caribou is usually full of hardships, but once 
they have reached the hunting-ground and found game a great improve- 
ment in affairs takes place; the hunter is busy killing,! while the women 
dry meat and make grease, dress the skins for moccasins, mittens, and 
gun-covers, and cut babiche, which takes the place of string for lacing 
snow-shoes and many other purposes. For the hair coats, which every- 

* Loc. cit., pp. 49-50. 

t The following extract indicates one of the methods of hunting and kill- 
ing without rifles: 

Sergeant A. H. Joy, writing on 18 Feb., 1918, states: 

"I had a conversation with a Caribou-eater Indian during the former part 
of this winter and he told me that the band with whom he lived very seldom 
used guns to kill the caribou between the end of July and the middle of Sep- 
tember, as the caribou came through the country so thick that they could 
crowd them into the lakes and rivers and on the lake shores and kill them 
with sticks and axes, and on these occasions the animals are slaughtered in 
hundreds." 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 65 

body — men, women, and children — wears during the cold season, the best 
skins are those of the young animals killed in July or August, as the 
hair is short and does not fall off so readily as in coats made from the skin 
of a full-grown caribou; while the strong sinews lying along the back- 
bone of an old bull make the very best thread for sewing. Anything that 
is left over after supplying the whole family finds a ready sale at the 
fort, where there is always a demand for dried meat, tongues, grease, 
dressed skins, and babiche, so that the Dog-ribs and Yellow-knives, 
whose country produces little fur, with the exception of musk-ox robes, 
are thus enabled to afford some few of the white man's luxuries, tea and 
tobacco being especially dear to the Indian's heart- 

The skins of the caribou are in the best condition in Sep- 
tember, and the meat is best in September and October, 
when, in the words of J. W. Tyrrell, "the males are rolling 
fat, and as food their flesh is equal to the finest beef." In 
the spring the flesh is poor, as it also is in the summer. In 
the spring the skins are of little value, on account of the 
shedding of the hair, and the frequent abundance of warbled 
hides, to which reference will be made later. 

The increase in the number of rifles supplied to the Es- 
kimos on the Arctic coast has resulted in a great increase in 
the number of caribou killed. At the same time, the ability 
to obtain this form of food so easily has led to a change in 
the habits of the Eskimos. Formerly they usually hunted 
seal during the winter, and continued until late in May. 
Now, Doctor R. M. Anderson informs me, they are coming 
ashore one or two months earlier than was their former 
custom, and living on the caribou which are migrating 
steadily northward in April and May. While they are 
migrating they are most easily killed. But the worst feature 
of this spring killing, which of course is illegal, is that most 
of the caribou killed are females which are crossing to Vic- 
toria Island to give birth to fawns in June. It is of the 
greatest importance to the conservation of the caribou that 
this practice should be stopped, and recommendations to 



66 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

that effect have already been made in my memoranda and 
addresses to the Commission of Conservation.* 

The wholesale trading in caribou skins must be checked. 
The extermination of the caribou in northern and north- 
western Alaska was brought about by the trade in summer 
skins, and the sale of meat to whalers. In this region some 
of the Eskimo hunters used to kill as many as 500 caribou 
in a single summer for their skins; and the carcasses were 
usually left to rot. This practice is becoming common in 
Canadian territory, where skins are taken for the purpose 
of barter, and the result is that many more skins are taken 
than are required by the Eskimos for their personal use. 
Unless this wasteful practice is discontinued — and we hope 
it will be — any other effort to conserve the caribou will have 
little effect. It is interesting to note that some of the 
Eskimo tribes entertain the belief that the caribou are sent 
to them by the spirit world to kill, and that unless they kill 
every caribou they meet, whether they require it or not for 
food or clothing, the spirit world will not send them any 
more. Such a belief naturally leads to wasteful slaughter 
on the part of the Eskimos, and it is to be hoped that mis- 
sionaries and others will endeavour to dispel such a per- 
nicious idea. 

To recapitulate, the economic reasons for the conserva- 
tion of the barren-ground caribou are as follows: first, the 
necessity of preserving so essential a source of food and 
clothing for the Indians, Eskimos, and other present and 
future inhabitants of the north ; and second, the desirability 
of developing so important a natural resource for the benefit 
of the Dominion as a whole, inasmuch as it would provide 
a source of meat of incalculable value, and skins that could 
be utilized in the manufacture of many articles of clothing 
and commerce. 

* "Conservation of Fish, Birds, and Game." Coram. Conservation, 1916, pp. 
146-147; and Seventh Annual Report, Comm. Conservation, pp. 32-38, 1916. 



PLATE V 






<^»vi "■»» 



i&B^fe«?^ 







From pUiiioiiriiphs by J. B. Tyrrell. Courtesy of the Geological Survey 

A HERD OF UAKREN-GROUND CARIBOU ON SHORE OF CAREY LAKE. 
DUBAWNT RIVER, MACKENZIE DISTRICT, N. W. T. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 67 

Caribou Warble-Fly. — Before leaving this animal, refer- 
ence should be made to the occurrence of warbles in the 
hides of the caribou. During the spring and summer a 
species of warble-fly {(Edamagena iarandi L.) deposits its 
eggs on the coat of the caribou, and the small maggots bore 
into the skin and ultimately find a resting-place beneath 
the skin, particularly on the back of the animal. By Oc- 
tober the presence of these maggots can be noticed on ac- 
count of the lumps or ''warbles" on the hide. The maggots 
continue to grow, and pierce the hide for the purpose of 
breathing. Early in the spring they emerge through the 
holes that they have made in the hide and fall to the 
ground, where they change into brownish-black pupse, from 
which the flies emerge. Owing to the numerous holes made 
in the skin of the caribou by these maggots the skins are 
rendered useless for dressing, and the total destruction of 
hides is very great. As is well known, our domestic cattle 
are attacked by a closely related species of warble-fly. 
The Eskimos are very fond of the large, juicy maggots, and 
whenever a caribou affected with maggots is killed and 
skinned they pick the Uving grubs off the under sides of the 
skins and eat them raw with great relish. To a taste accus- 
tomed to consuming all kinds of raw meat they are no doubt 
delicacies of a high order. 

The caribou are tormented by myriads of black flies and 
mosquitoes, and it is no doubt largely on account of these 
pests that they travel northward in the spring, although they 
are by no means able to escape the hordes of these blood- 
sucking insects that occur in the north in the spring and 
early summer. 

THE WOODLAND CARIBOU AND RELATED SPECIES 

While zoologists are still undecided as to the number of 
species of caribou that occur in Canada, it is possible to 
separate four distinct species, namely: (1) the barren-ground 



68 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

caribou (Rangifer arcticus), with its allied races to which I 
have already referred, which is the smallest species; (2) the 
woodland caribou {R. caribou) (Plate II), which is larger in 
size, and comes next in extent of distribution and abundance; 
(3) the large mountain caribou {R. montanus and R. osborni), 
which is dark in colour and exceeds all others in size (Plate 
IV) ; and the light-coloured or white Newfoundland caribou 
(R. terrcenovce) . 

Throughout its range the woodland caribou is but thinly 
scattered, and it is nowhere numerous at the present time. 
It may be found in the thickly wooded coniferous forest 
regions from Nova Scotia in the east to British Columbia 
in the west. In Nova Scotia it has become very scarce, 
but may still be found in small numbers in the western part 
of the province, particularly in Victoria and Inverness Coun- 
ties, Cape Breton Island. A few remain in New Brunswick, 
but unfortunately they appear to be decreasing in numbers 
annually.* Perhaps the greatest number now occur in the 
province of Quebec, especially in the remote forest regions 
which extend from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Hudson 
Bay, although their numbers are decreasing every year. In 
1911 I found that they were still fairly common in the Lake 
St. John region, but they are in need of greater protection 
in that province. 

Throughout the coniferous forests in the northern por- 
tions of the provinces of Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, 
and Alberta, and the adjacent similarly forested regions of 

* Henry Braithwaite, the veteran guide and trapper, of Fredericton, ia 
quoted as saying, in The Weekly Mail, Fredericton, N. B., February 9, 1921: 
" I may be wrong, but it is my honest opinion that the New Brunswick caribou 
have been exterminated. . . . Some of our guides and sportsmen appear to 
be under the impression that caribou will some day return to the province. 
It is my belief that they will not come back. They left New Brunswick just 
as they left Maine some thirty years ago, and Maine is without caribou to- 
day. . . . They have gone out in precisely the same way as the wild pigeons. 
I can remember in my boyhood days seeing flocks of wild pigeons which 
almost darkened the sky. They vanished almost in a night, and the predic- 
tion was freely made that they would return, but they have not done so." 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 69 

the Northwest Territories, the woodland caribou is widely 
distributed, but it is nowhere abundant. MacFarlane states 
that this caribou is known to the Cree Indians as the mus- 
keg-atik or ''swamp deer," on account of the character of 
its usual habitat, and that it is not found in the region 
of poplar growth or in the open plains. From the state- 
ments of MacFarlane and reports that have been furnished 
me by Mr. Charles Barber, chief game guardian of Mani- 
toba, Mr. F. Bradshaw, chief game guardian of Saskatche- 
wan, and Mr. H. T. Bury of the Department of Indian 
Affairs, the range of the woodland caribou is, throughout 
this western territory, generally speaking about as follows: 
From Lake Winnipeg westward to Lake Athabaska; in 
northern Saskatchewan they occur chiefly northeast of 
Prince Albert and northwest of Battleford; over the whole 
section of the country within the basins of the Slave and 
Athabaska Rivers; and between Athabaska Lake and Great 
Slave Lake they occur chiefly on the west side of the Slave 
River, and through the country lying between Peace River 
and Great Slave Lake. Farther west small herds have been 
encountered along the lower Liard River, and in northern 
Alberta they have been met as far south as the North Sas- 
katchewan River near Edmonton. 

Seldom are large numbers found together. They usually 
occur in small bands made up of five to thirty or forty indi- 
viduals. Sometimes larger bands may be found congre- 
gating in the autumn. When they are dressed the skins of 
the woodland caribou are superior to those of the barren- 
ground caribou. 

Mountain Caribou. — The mountain caribou are to be 
found in British Columbia. In the southeastern part of 
the province the species described by Seton, in 1899, as the 
black-faced or moimtain caribou {R. montanus) occurs in 
the forested valleys of the Selkirk and Monashee (Gold) 
Mountains. Mr. Robert Chapman informed me that he 



70 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

saw a few caribou, no doubt this species, in the great bend 
of the Columbia River, north of Revelstoke, in 1915. In 
September the new coat of this species is almost black, and 
the antlers bear a large number of long tines. Further 
north the large mountain caribou, first described in 1902 
by Allen as Osborn's caribou {R. oshorni), is found in the 
Stikine Mountains. This is a larger species than the south- 
ern mountain caribou, and its splendid head is prized by 
all big-game hunters. Its coat is browner than the R, 
montanus. 

In referring to the caribou in his annual report for 1915, 
Mr. Bryan Williams, then provincial game warden for Brit- 
ish Columbia, states that the ''reports of caribou in the north 
are much better than for several years, one hunting party 
in Cassiar having seen some 1,200 head in a few days' 
hunting. Information has also been received of magnificent 
caribou ranges in a part of the north country hitherto al- 
most uninhabited, even by Indians. The report states that 
one day, while travelling some twelve miles, small bands of 
caribou were constantly in view, and that one large band 
of close on to five hundred head was seen." In his annual 
report for 1915 Mr. WilHams states: ''WTien the last report 
was written the mountain caribou in the Selkirks were sup- 
posed to be very scarce, but subsequent reports were quite 
the contrary. In fact, there were more caribou about than 
for some years, though, owing to the bad crust on the snow, 
they were hard to get. The Chilcotin caribou have almost 
disappeared. Even the Indians are now agitating for an 
absolutely close season in certain areas, and I promise to 
see that if such regulations are made they will be observed. 
There are many more caribou on the ranges towards the 
head of the Fraser River than there were thought to be. 
This country was hunted a good deal during the past season, 
and one party reported having seen 128 head, which is a 
very large number for this district." 



PLATE VI 




Photographs by W. E. Ekhlaw of the Crocker Land Expedition of the American Museum 
of Xulurul Ilislonj. Reproduced hy permissi(m 

MUSK-OXEN ON ELLESMERE ISLAND 

1. Eskimos rounding up by means of clogs and shooting down a herd of Musk-oxen 

2. Herd of Musk-oxen in characteristic defensive formation 

3. Herd of Musk-oxen rounded up by Eskimo dogs 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 71 

In 1911 what has been described as a new species of 
mountain caribou, the Rocky Mountain caribou (R. for- 
tidens), was described by Hollister.* 

This is a very large species, exceeding in size the other 
species of mountain caribou. The teeth are conspicuously 
large; the colour is very dark, ranging from dark brown to 
black, and the antlers are stout and heavily palmated, more 
Uke R. montanus but very different from R. osborni. The 
species was found at the head of the Moose Pass branch of 
the Smoky River, northeast of Mount Robson. 

As all these species of caribou, which are the reindeer of 
the New World, occur almost entirely in Canadian territory, 
with the exception of a few woodland caribou in Maine, 
northern Minnesota, and northern Idaho and the caribou 
in Alaska, a special responsibility lies upon us to take every 
possible step to prevent their reduction to the extent that 
their existence would be menaced. It is important, there- 
fore, that all the provinces concerned in their protection 
should take especial care that their game laws provide for 
such protection as the local abundance of these caribou de- 
mands; for otherwise we may lose in some regions a very 
unique member of our big-game fauna. 

ANTELOPE 

The history of the antelope, or ''pronghorn," in North 
America, its only home, constitutes another of those trag- 
edies in the story of our wild life. The most graceful and 
the fleetest of our four-footed animals, it has suffered a fate 
not unhke that of its companion of the wide prairies, the 
buffalo, with the herds of which it formerly shared a wide 
range, extending from the provinces of Alberta, Saskatche- 
wan, and Manitoba in the north to Mexico in the south. 

* "New Mammals from Canada, Alaska and Kamchatka," by N. Hollister. 
Smithsonian Misc. Collections, vol. 56, no. 35, pp. 1-8, 1912. See also 
Canadian Alpine Journal, special no., pp. 37-39, 1912. 



72 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Over many portions of this range they roamed in uncount- 
able herds. To-day over the same territory a few thousand 
are able to exist, solely on account of the absolute protection 
that they are given in our western provinces and all of the 
States. It is the same story of extermination following the 
advent of man armed with rifles and the extension of agri- 
culture. The settlement of the country and the construc- 
tion of railroads have also introduced a new factor, namely 
the wire-fence, that has had a very marked effect in con- 
fining the remaining herds to restricted areas and thus pre- 
venting their normal migration. 

One visitor to the West in the early "seventies" has de- 
scribed to me how the prairie seemed to vibrate with the 
galloping of these swift little creatures, and how they were 
slaughtered to such an extent that their outstretched car- 
casses were piled in heaps like cord- wood. 

Not only is it the most graceful of the hoofed animals of 
America, but it is so unique in its characters that it con- 
stitutes the sole member of a special family found nowhere 
else in the world. On that account alone its extinction 
would be a calamity. Its chief title to scientific distinction 
consists in the fact that like the cattle tribe it has hollow 
horns, but unlike them it sheds the outside sheath each year, 
just as the members of the deer tribe shed their antlers. In 
the latter case it is the whole horn or antler that is shed; but 
in the case of the antelope only the outer sheath of the horn 
is shed. The inner core remains and gives rise to the new 
horn, which is pronged; and hence the name, "pronghorn," 
by which the species is more correctly known, as the animal 
is not a true antelope. 

Scarcely more than three feet at the shoulder in height, 
these little animals are well adapted to the life of the great 
plains. One of their striking peculiarities is the possession 
of a white chrysanthemum-like patch of hair on the rump. 
This hair is erectile at will and serves as an excellent sig- 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 73 

nailing apparatus to other members of the herd, and all 
observers have testified as to the value of this natural 
heUograph. 

Habits. — In the days of antelope abundance they formed 
herds varying in numbers from a few individuals to several 
hundred during the fall, and these herds consisted of adults 
of both sexes and young. In September or October the 
bucks vigorously contest for the possession of the does, and 
soon the most vigorous bucks have rounded up their small 
bands of chosen does. With the advent of winter the herds 
migrate, sometimes for a hundred miles or more, to seek the 
more sheltered regions of their range in the low hills and 
foot-hills, and here among the coulees they pass the winter. 
To-day these herds do not often number more than about 
fifty animals. 

With the return of spring the herds split up. The does 
seek such solitude as they may be able to find, and in 
May or June they give birth, usually to two fawns, which 
remain with their mother all summer. In the fall the 
males drift in again, and the seasonal life history is re- 
peated. 

It is a singular fact that it is practically impossible to 
keep the antelope in captivity. Hornaday, who has had 
great experience in this respect, states: ''Owing to the ex- 
treme difficulty in maintaining this species in captivity, its 
total extinction at an early date seems absolutely certain, 
unless it is fully and permanently protected in a wild state, 
on its native range, for a long period." 

Distribution and Abundance in Canada. — In Canada it 
formerly ranged, probably in an abundance almost equal 
to that of the buffalo, from southern Manitoba westward 
to the Rocky Mountains and northward as far as Edmon- 
ton. Seton* gives what would appear to be the last record 
of the occurrence of the antelope in Manitoba, where it is 

*"Life Histories of Northern Animals," vol. I, pp. 215-216. 



74 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

now extinct. He says: ''J. T. Brondgeest, of Whitewater, 
Man., tells me that he first came to Whitewater in 1879, 
and settled down in the fall of 1880, and that in those days 
there were plenty of antelope about, but the last he saw was 
killed by his father in 1881." 

To-day the antelope in Canada are confined to those 
areas in the southern portion of Saskatchewan and Alberta 
that have not been devoted to wheat-growing. From the 
inquiries that I have made, I do not think that there are more 
than about 3,000 animals now remaining in those provinces, 
and of this number the greater portion exists in Saskatche- 
wan. In the latter province Mr. F. Bradshaw, the chief 
game guardian, informs me that the existing antelope are 
to be found mainly in the following districts: the Great 
Sand Hills north of Maple Creek and Crane Lake; the Ver- 
milion Hills between Ernfold, on the main line of the 
Canadian Pacific Railway, and the South Saskatchewan 
River; on the east of Lake Chaplin, south of Secretan on 
the main line of the C. P. R. ; southeast of Cypress Hills and 
adjoining the Whitemud River; and northwest and south 
of Wood Mountain. The last three localities are in a region 
that is chiefly devoted to cattle-ranching, and it is encour- 
aging to know that, according to Mr. Bradshaw, the own- 
ers of the cattle ranges in which the antelope are to be 
found, particularly in the Pinto Creek section of southern 
Saskatchewan, are doing what they can to protect the an- 
telope found on their ranges, where they mingle with the 
cattle. It is of interest to record that Mr. Reuben Lloyd, 
of Davidson, Sask., has in a small fifteen-acre private game 
reserve, three male and one female antelope, and in 1916 
the latter gave birth to the two fawns which are shown on 
Plate XIIL 

In southern Alberta a few small herds may be found in 
the rolling hills, and the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains 
that are remote from settled areas. In both provinces the 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 75 

antelope is absolutely protected by law for a period of years, 
and, although a certain amount of illegal killing undoubtedly 
takes place, nevertheless the watchfulness of the provin- 
cial game wardens and of the members of the Canadian 
Mounted Police appears to be checking any further de- 
crease in numbers due to hunting. 

The Dominion Parks Branch of the Department of In- 
terior has been active in its earnest endeavour to save the 
antelope from extermination. Several attempts have been 
made to breed the antelope in the national parks in the 
west, particularly in the Buffalo Park at Wainwright, Alta., 
but without success. With the assistance of Mr. Thompson 
Seton, three areas have been set aside as reserves for an- 
telope, one in Alberta and two in Saskatchewan. In the 
spring of 1914 the Branch was advised of the presence of a 
small herd of antelope near Foremost, Alta. Mr. Maxwell 
Graham, in charge of the Animal Division of the Branch, 
immediately proceeded to the locaUty and was successful in 
enclosing, with a suitable fence about twelve miles in length, 
an area of about 5,160 acres, a herd discovered near the 
junction of two deep coulees. The land is mostly unsettled, 
and as yet is unfitted for agriculture. Broken by numerous 
ravines, it contains excellent summer and winter range, 
and such vegetation as sage-brush, cactus, and antelope 
grass, as well as water. At the time of capture the herd 
consisted of forty-two animals, and this number has now 
increased to about one hundred. 

All animal-lovers are unanimous in their hope that the 
earnest efforts that are now being made by the Dominion 
and the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, not merely 
to prevent the extermination but to secure an increase in 
numbers of this incomparably beautiful and unique member 
of our wild life, will be attended with success. The creation 
in the minds of the farmers and ranchers Uving within the 
antelope range of a sympathetic attitude towards the pres- 



76 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

ervation of so valuable a possession will accomplish more 
than anything else towards the attainment of the desired 
object. 

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP 

Of all our big-game animals none is more characteristic 
of our western mountains, and none offers such a magnifi- 
cent trophy to the sportsmen whose endurance its winning 
demands, as the mountain sheep, or ''big-horn." It is the 
best-known type of the New World representatives of the 
numerous forms of wild sheep, all characterized by their 
circular horns, that are to be found in the Old World, where 
the finest of all the wild sheep, Ovis poli, occurs in the lofty 
Pamir ranges of Central Asia. 

Our several species of American mountain sheep are 
found from northern Mexico on the south to the mountains 
fringing the northern coast of Alaska and western side of 
the Mackenzie delta. They reach their greatest abundance 
in the central parts of their range. 

In the United States they have suffered the fate of the 
rest of the big game, and have been exterminated in very 
many of their former haunts through the greed of hunters 
and others whose rapacity has been permitted to run riot 
owing to the lack of adequate protection; and also by dis- 
ease contracted from domestic sheep. The history of this 
animal in the southern portion of its range serves as a 
solemn warning to us, and should be an incentive to the 
enforcement of every possible means that will secure the 
preservation of an animal which in its native haunts evokes 
thrills of admiration in every mountaineer. 

In Canada we have three distinct species of mountain 
sheep: the Rocky Mountain sheep {Ovis canadensis) and its 
varieties; Stone's or the black mountain sheep {Ovis stonei), 
described by J. A. Allen in 1897; and the pure- white Ball's 
mountain sheep {Ovis dalli), of the far north and Alaska, 



PLATE VII 




ROCKY MOUNTAIN SPIEEP (Ovis canadensis) 




WHITE MOUNTAIN SHEEP (Ovis dulli) 

From paintings by Carl Kungius. Reproduced by courtesy of the New York 
Zoological Society 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 77 

described by E. W. Nelson in 1884. A fourth species, 
known as Fannin's mountain sheep, or the '^saddle-backed" 
or ''piebald" sheep (Ovis fannini), was described by W. T. 
Hornaday in 1901.* This species is now considered by 
some to be due to interbreeding between Ovis stonei and 
Ovis dalli. Its type specimen is in the Provincial Museum 
at Victoria, B. C, and the latter view appears to me to be 
correct in view of the observations of Charles Sheldonf and 
others. 

An examination of many skins and the reports of hunters 
indicate a strong tendency among the northern mountain 
sheep to vary in colour and thus render specific designations 
somewhat difficult. In northern British Columbia and the 
adjoining part of the Yukon Territory where Fannin's sad- 
dle-backed sheep occurs, in the mountains between the home 
of the typical Stone's black mountain sheep (0. stonei) and 
Dall's white mountain sheep (0. dalli), sheep are found hav- 
ing white heads and necks and with bodies of varying shades 
of grey, produced by mixtures of dark and white hairs. 
One may find white sheep mingling with the dark-grey or 
grey and white sheep. There can be little doubt that in- 
terbreeding occurs. But, while such intergrading of char- 
acters may be found in regions adjoining or common to 
different species, especially as mountain sheep will occasion- 
ally extend their range, in the mountain ranges where in- 
termingling does not occur the animals keep true to type, 
the topographical and climatic conditions being sufficient 
to prevent extensive intermingling. The distribution of 
the colour variations intermediate between the black 0. 
stonei and the white 0. dalli, including the "saddle-back" 
sheep, 0. fannini, is shown in the accompanying map pre- 

* Homaday, W. T., " Notes on Mountain Sheep in North America, with 
a Description of a New Species," Fifth Ann. Report New York Zool. Society, 
pp. 77-122, 1901. 

t "The Wilderness of the Upper Yukon." By Charles Sheldon. Second 
edition, New York, 1909. 



78 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

pared by Charles Sheldon on the basis of the available in- 
formation regarding the distribution of these sheep* (p. 82). 
The mountain sheep are partners with the eagles of the 
tops of the high mountain ranges. Here on the treeless 
mountain divides and plateaus, and in the verdant alpine 
meadows, the sheep find all their needs supplied, and thrive 
in the altitudes above the limit of tree growth. In these 
rugged pastures usually one and sometimes two young are 
born in the spring, and even in the winter, when deep snow 
drives many of them to the lower altitudes, where protected 
pastures may be found, or to the foot-hills; others will re- 
main to eke out an existence by pawing through the snows 
of the mountain meadows. Always alert and difficult to 
approach, it offers a great contrast to its phlegmatic and at 
times unsuspicious mountain neighbour, the mountain goat. 

The Rocky Mountain Sheep {Ovis canadensis) 

(plate vii) 

Distribution. — The justly famous "Big Horn" has as its 
principal habitat the main range of the Rocky Mountains. 
From the international boundary on the south it ranges 
through British Columbia and Alberta to a northern limit, 
which is found in the region of the Smoky River, on the 
eastern slope of the Rocky Moimtains, It occurs in the 
mountains of British Columbia, except in the Coast Moun- 
tains, from the Kootenays to latitude 55° 30'. Dawson 
gives its westward range 'Ho the line drawn a certain dis- 
tance back from the seacoast, approximately along the mid- 
dle of the Coast Mountains. . . . Within the above area 
are many ranges and groups in which sheep do not occur." 
It is found in the Similkameen, Okanagan, Cariboo, and 

* We should be pleased if hunters, surveyors, and others visiting the re- 
gions inhabited by sheep would send us information regarding the varieties 
occurring in those regions, in order that our knowledge of their distribution 
may be increased. — C. G. H. 



i 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 79 

Chilcotin regions. In spite of long persecution — the slaugh- 
ter by sportsmen for a trophy that is prized above all others, 
and by white men and particularly Indians for meat, for its 
flesh is of the most savoury kind — it has managed to hold 
its own. 

Habits. — The Rocky Mountain sheep prefers the high 
mountain meadows at timber-Une, where small bands will 
graze on the rich vegetation usually found there. Partic- 
ularly do they prefer a grassy meadow or slope, one side of 
which falls away in precipitous crags, with talus below, by 
which route their marvellous agihty in climbing rocks will 
enable them to make their escape should danger arise. The 
rams and ewes form separate flocks in the spring, and feed 
in separate pastures until late in the fall, when they inter- 
mingle again. The young are born between May 15 
and June 15, sometimes on the high snow-fields, or in 
sheltered places among the rocks near the timber-Hne. 
The chief enemies of the lambs in the spring are the golden 
and bald eagles. When stress of weather drives the small 
flocks to lower altitudes they are subject to the attacks of 
such predatory animals as wolves, coyotes, and cougars 
or mountain hons. 

The horns of the Rocky Mountain sheep are massive and 
thick, and not so widely spread as in other species. The 
largest horns ever taken of which I can find a record are 
claimed to have measured eighteen and one-half inches in 
circumference at the base and fifty-two and one-half inches 
m length round the curve. This ram was taken in the Sel- 
kirk Mountains. Fine horns are often spoiled by being 
''stubbed" at the end by fighting, and by wearing away 
owing to striking the horns against rocks and rubbing them. 
There is a large amount of variation to be found in the 
weight and thickness of the horns of races of this species 
from different localities; for example, the horns of sheep 
found in the Lillooet region of British Columbia are usually 



80 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

more slender and less massive than those carried by sheep 
in the Rocky Mountain region of the same province. The 
female sheep have short, goat-like horns, which are erect 
and flattened, and they measure from five to eight inches. 

In Alberta the Rocky Mountain sheep are found through- 
out the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, from the 
international boundary to the region of the Smoky River, 
and at the head of the Grand Cache River. In the southerly 
part of their range they have suffered severely through the 
excessive hunting of the Stoney Indians, but a number of 
circumstances are now tending not only to prevent their 
further reduction, but to insure an increase in abundance. 
The Indians are now compelled to observe the provincial 
game laws, which require a bag limit of two sheep and fix 
the open season from September 1 to October 15. The 
most important factor, however, in protecting the sheep 
and insuring an increase is the protection they secure in the 
Dominion Parks. In the Waterton Lakes Park, in the 
south, they are reported to be more plentiful. Their in- 
crease in number in the Rocky Mountains Park is very 
noticeable. In fact, the presence of a flock of ewes and 
lambs in the neighbourhood of the Vermilion Lakes auto- 
mobile road is one of the attractions of Banff during the 
summer. Jasper Park contains a large area of sheep coun- 
try, in which the present stock of sheep will undoubtedly 
increase through the absolute protection accorded to them 
by the game-protection policy of the Dominion Parks. 
These three extensive areas, that are described in greater 
detail elsewhere, will insure the preservation of this species, 
and will act as a source of natural supply for the adjacent 
mountains outside the confines of the parks. 

The Rocky Mountain sheep in British Columbia may be 
killed between September 1 and November 15, in all 
districts except the electoral districts of Yale, Similkameen, 
and North and South Okanagan, in which they are given 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 81 

an absolute close season at the present time with a view to 
increasing their numbers. The reports received from other 
districts are very satisfactory and indicate the wisdom of 
limiting the kilUng to males only. In the Lillooet region 
they have unfortunately so decreased in numbers as to 
necessitate a close season for several years. This decrease 
is said to be due to the excessive hunting by the Chilcotin 
Indians and to the abundance of cougars. 

The Black Mountain Sheep {Ovis stonei) 

This species was first described by J. A. Allen from 
specimens killed by A. J. Stone in the Cheonee Mountains 
of northern British Columbia, at the headwaters of the 
Stikine and Nass Rivers, in 1896. The black mountain 
sheep and the next species, the white sheep {Ovis dalli), 
with the intermediate colour grades shown in the accom- 
panying plate (VII), all of which are generally referred 
to as the dalli-stonei group, have more slender and less 
massive horns than the Rocky Mountain sheep {Ovis cana- 
densis). There is, however, among the sheep of the dalli- 
stonei group, considerable variation in the character of the 
horns. Charles Sheldon* describes the following types: 
''The narrow type, sometimes with very close spiral; the 
diverging type, often with a very wide angle from the per- 
pendicular — both these types occur with massive or slender 
horns; a type with horns very much curled, the tips extend- 
ing up well beyond the eyes; a type with very small, com- 
pact, curled horns, often well wrinkled in age, but very 
slight in weight; a type large at the base, and abruptly 
tapering outward to thinness; a type with horns curving 
without elevation from the skull, having the appearance of 
low horns; another, the reverse, in which the horns rise 
curhng almost directly upwards from the skull, having the 

*Loc. cit., Appendix F. 



ILLUSTRATING DISTRIBUTION OF MOUNTAIN SHEEP IN AREAS 
INDICATED ON THE MAP 

PLATE VIII 



m 






I 




% 


1 


y' 







Dislribulion Areas 

A. — Occupied by Fig. 1 
{Ovis dalli) exclusively 

B. — Ogih'ie Mountains 
occupied by Figs. 2, 3, 4, 
exceptionally Fig. 5, in 
eastern section. Figs. 2 
and 3 greatly in the ma- 
jority. Between Yukon 
and Tanann Rivers oc- 
cupied mostly by Fig. 2 
with much less black on 
tail, occasionally Fig. 1. 
West of Lewes River oc- 
cui)ied by Figs. 1 and 2 
in the majority: Figs. 
2, 3, 5 exceptionally 

C— Occupied by Figs. 
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Figs. 3, 
4, 5, 6 most common. 
Intermediate colours be- 
tween 2 and 3 equally 
common 

D. — Occupied by Figs. 
4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Figs. 5, 6, 7 
in the majority. Ten- 
dency toward lighter col- 
ours in the north. Fig. 4 
exceptional in the north, 
still more so toward the 
south. Fig. 9 occasion- 
ally in the south 

E. — Occupied by Fig. 
(Oris stnnei). Rarely 
Figs. 6 and 7 are found 
in this area 

Figs. 1, 5, and 9 were 
drawn from the Types. 
Tlie other figures are 
from specimens illustrat- 
ing the average colours, 
but actually every intermediate gradation of colour occurs between each form illus- 
trated 

(After Sheldon) 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 83 

appearance of high horns; more exceptional types where the 
tips thrust at length almost horizontally outward, and where 
the tips do not turn outward at all. Every possible inter- 
mediate form of horns occurs between all these types. The 
horns of ewes, although generally more uniform, vary be- 
tween the narrow and diverging types." According to 
Sheldon the common type of horns of the dalli-stonei group 
everywhere is the narrow type. "In regions where sheep 
are more abundant naturally there are more rams with large 
horns, and also, in most places, with a larger proportion of 
diverging horns." 

The known distribution of Ovis stonei is shown approxi- 
mately in the accompanying map (p. 82). Southward they 
have been found near the head of the South Fork of Stikine 
to the Iskoot River, not far from the Nass River. The ex- 
treme southern and eastern range is not known. Sheldon 
suggests that it is probably between latitudes 56 and 57 
degrees, and west of longitude 122 degrees. 

In various parts of their range the black mountain sheep 
are to be found in abundance. They are reported to be 
very numerous in the mountains of the Cassiar district, 
which perhaps constitute their chief centre, and in 1915 
Mr. Williams, provincial game warden for British Columbia, 
reported that good bands were seen on several ranges that 
had almost been deserted for several years previously. 
East of Dease Lake they are also abundant. The flocks are 
often larger than those of the Rocky Mountain sheep. 
Large flocks may sometimes be found consisting of ewes and 
young rams. Except in the fall and winter the older rams 
separate from the ewes, as in the previous species, and they 
live apart in small flocks. The blackest specimens have 
been found north and south of Telegraph Creek, B. C. 

The inaccessible character of the greater portion of the 
range of this species prevents great reduction in its numbers 
either by hunters or Indians. The Cassiar region in which 



84 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

it ranges is unsurpassed as a big-game country, and will 
continue to attract sportsmen from all parts of the world, 
in consequence of which every precaution should be taken 
to prevent a reduction in numbers of this splendid animal. 

Dall's Mountain Sheep {Ov'is dalli) 
(plate vii) 

It must have been one of the great occasions of his life 
when my friend, Doctor E. W. Nelson, now chief of the Bi- 
ological Survey of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, first saw this most northerly and certainly the 
most beautiful species of mountain sheep, which he after- 
wards described, in the mountains of Alaska in 1881. From 
the fall to the spring its thick coat of rather long pelage is 
pure white, and its amber-coloured horns have the graceful 
sweeping spiral typical of the northern species, 0. stonei 
and 0. dalli. From early June to September the copious 
winter coat is shed, and the hair is short like that of the 
Rocky Mountain sheep. Through contact with the red 
soil and rocks it becomes discoloured and often bears a 
reddish tint. Intrepid chmber of the most rugged peaks 
of the high northern mountains of Alaska and Canada, it 
affords a trophy of the finest kind. 

The distribution of Ovis dalli will be most readily ascer- 
tained by reference to the map. Sheldon states that pure- 
white sheep, that is, Ovis dalli, are distributed as follows: 
Throughout the Mackenzie Mountains, within the Macken- 
zie watershed south farther than latitude 62 degrees. In the 
Yukon Territory, north of latitude 66 degrees, south of lati- 
tude 62 degrees, and west of 136 degrees. West of the 
Lewes and Yukon Rivers they greatly preponderate over 
the intermediate colour grades. In the Ogilvie Mountains 
the tendency towards the white 0. dalli prevails increasingly 
towards the west and north. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 85 

The presence of all gradations between the pure white 
0. dalli and the dark-grey or black 0. stonei in the moun- 
tains between the range of these two species has already 
been mentioned. In the Selwyn Mountains and in the 
region between the Sheslay River district and the Lewes 
River the colour of the sheep is extremely variable. From 
the Sheslay River region north of the Stikine River, north 
along the uninterrupted area of travel through the Stikine 
Mountains and the Pelly River region, there is more gen- 
eral uniformity of colour, lighter sheep occurring along the 
Pelly River. 

It would appear that "within the areas of colour varia- 
tion," to quote Sheldon, "sheep inhabiting the continuous 
unbroken ranges have a tendency towards uniform colours, 
while those inhabiting regions where the mountain ranges 
are broken, having the character of complex groups separated 
by wide valleys, tend to vary." 

R. G. McConnell reported this species from the moun- 
tains west of Peel River, in 1901. Jos. Keele, in the report 
of his reconnaissance of the Mackenzie Mountains, in 1907 
and 1908, states that they are plentiful in portions of the 
Gravel River region, particularly on the low mountains be- 
tween the Sayunei and Tigonankweine ranges. E. A. Preble 
(1908) reported their occurrence in the mountains west of 
the Mackenzie River from the vicinity of Fort Liard to 
near the Arctic coast. They are killed in the mountains 
opposite to Forts Norman and Good Hope, and while at 
Fort Macpherson he saw heads and skins which had been 
obtained on Black Mountain, the extremity of the range 
west of the Mackenzie delta. 

During the summer the rams and ewes are hardly ever 
found together. Charles Sheldon informs us that the 
Iambs are born from early May to early June, and some- 
times, though this is exceptional, as late as early August. 
After the lambs are born the ewes and lambs remain in the 



86 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

most inaccessible parts of the mountains and afterwards 
seek the best food areas. The rams seek the best food 
areas, but do not move about so much as the ewes. 

The splendid trophy that the head of the white sheep 
makes causes it to be hunted whenever and wherever pos- 
sible. R. M. Anderson has reported the use of the skins 
for clothing by western Eskimos, but this is not common 
as the range of the sheep is largely outside of Eskimo ter- 
ritory. The great palatabihty of its flesh has been one of 
the main causes of its reduction and extermination in many 
parts of its range, especially in Alaska, where miners, pros- 
pectors, and others have not only killed it extensively for 
their own use but also to serve as dog food in the winter. 

No animal can stand the reduction in numbers that such 
killing involves, and it is to be hoped that such wasteful 
destruction of this beautiful animal will be checked by 
more stringent regulations for its protection. The recent 
establishment of a national park by the United States Gov- 
ernment, in the Mount McKinley region, will do much to 
preserve this species in that territory, and the establish- 
ment of protected areas in the Canadian range of this, the 
most beautiful of our mountain sheep, cannot be too strongly 
urged, especially as it would not affect the vital interests 
of either white or native inhabitants. 

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT 
(plates IX AND XVl) 

The Rocky Mountain or white goat {Oreamnos montanus) 
is another of the unique members of our native mammals. 
It is the only representative on this continent of the numer- 
ous wUd species of goats that are found throughout Asia, 
southern Europe, — where its nearest relative is the chamois, 
— and northern Africa. Its home is to be found on the 
slopes and inaccessible summits of the western mountains. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 87 

The mountain ranges of British Columbia, from the Rockies 
on the east to the Coast Mountains on the west, constitute 
the chief stronghold of this remarkable animal. 

Habits. — The characteristic haunts of the Rocky Moun- 
tain goat are the precipitous rocky slopes and ledges, and 
the grassy alpine ridges above the timber-line, of the high 
mountains, where they feed on the grasses, lichens, and 
other stunted vegetation found among the rocks. In choice 
of habitat they differ from the mountam sheep. The differ- 
ence in choice of locality between these two inhabitants of 
our western mountain ranges is generally known, and the 
fact is frequently acknowledged by the statement that moun- 
tain sheep and goats are not often found together on the 
same mountain. Usually the difference of geological forma- 
tion between neighbouring mountains provides separate 
and suitable habitats for both species. 

They combine remarkable steadiness of nerve with agility 
and sure-footedness on the most precipitous and inaccessible 
rock faces, and in rock-climbing are the most expert of all 
American hoofed animals, with more apparent than real 
stupidity, and great deliberation on occasions when it is 
least expected. The oddness of their temperament is 
hardly surpassed by that of their appearance, which is ex- 
aggerated greatly when they are seen away from their na- 
tive crags. In spite of the fact that they do not offer the 
sportsmen either so splendid a trophy or so palatable a 
carcass as the mountain sheep, they are, nevertheless, an 
inducement to the most intrepid of climbers and cragsmen, 
who will seek them in their rock-bound pastures, over which 
their small, sure feet carry them with the greatest ease and 
safety. The difference in the shapes of the feet of the 
mountain goat and sheep leads to a difference in the appear- 
ance of their tracks. In the case of the goat, the open end 
of the V is in the direction the animal travels, whereas it 
is reversed in the case of the sheep. 



88 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Distribution. — While the greatest numbers, not only in 
Canada but in North America, are to be found in British 
Columbia, they are also found in Canadian territory on the 
eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta and in 
the Yukon. 

In Alberta they appear to be holding their own. The 
following are the numbers of mountain goats obtained by 
hunters, under license, in this province within the past few 
years. 

1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 
38 46 56 58 42 61 40 26 37 43 

In the Dominion Parks in Alberta there will always be a 
plentiful supply of mountain goats, as the parks that in- 
clude portions of the Rocky Mountains afford exceptionally 
good localities for these animals. In Jasper Park they are 
increasing in numbers and may frequently be seen there 
in their characteristic haunts by visitors. They are also 
increasing in numbers in the Rocky Mountains Park, where 
they may be found in nearly all parts of the park, partic- 
ularly on the Sulphur Range and on the high, rocky ridge 
at the summit of the White River and the West Fork of the 
Elk River. In the Waterton Lakes Park they are very 
plentiful. 

In British Columbia they are very abundant, and may 
be found on the mountain ranges from the summit of the 
Rockies to the sea-coast. In his annual report for 1915 Mr. 
Bryan Williams, provincial game warden, states: "More 
people hunt goat than formerly, but the number killed is 
so small as to have no effect on the enormous numbers of 
these animals. Except in one or two places very easy of 
access, they are as numerous as they ever were." And in 
the report for 1916 Mr. Williams states: ''Goats have been 
but little hunted this year; they seem to have increased in 
several of the places where they were getting a bit scarce." 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 89 

On account of its habits and its comparative lack of 
meat value, there is httle fear that this animal, with the 
adequate protection that it now receives, will become very 
greatly reduced in numbers, and probably it will continue 
to afford an inducement to the boldest of hunters, and a 
pleasing feature of the higher altitudes of our magnificent 
western mountains. 

THE MUSK-OX 

The musk-ox {Ovibos moschatus) (Plate III) is, in many 
respects, one of the most interesting of the larger members 
of our wild life. It is also one of our native animals that is 
fast disappearing, as will be shown, from causes which are 
avoidable; and it is in need of absolute protection. 

From a scientific standpoint it is of the greatest interest, 
as it occupies a unique position in the animal world. While 
it is not, strictly speaking, a link between the two families 
of sheep, on the one hand, and cattle on the other — a rela- 
tion indicated by its scientific name — it nevertheless com- 
bines anatomical and other characters belonging to these 
two large groups. In size it equals one of the small breeds 
of Welsh or Scotch cattle, and in appearance it resembles 
a small buffalo. This resemblance to the buffalo is not 
only external, but, as J. A. Allen,* in his valuable mono- 
graphic study of the musk-ox, has shown, the musk-ox has 
many anatomical features which would indicate that its 
nearest hving relative is the American bison. In certain 
other features, such as the linear horizontal pupil of the 
eye, its short tail, and especially in its behaviour, it dis- 
plays its affinities to the sheep. Allen also shows that the 
musk-oxen which at the present time inhabit northern Can- 

* "Ontogenetic and Other Variations in Musk-oxen, with a Systematic 
Review of the Musk-ox Group, Recent and Extinct," by J. A. Allen. Mem- 
oirs Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., N. S., vol. I, pt. 4, pp. 103-225, 45 figs., 8 pis., 
1913. 



90 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

ada and Greenland can be separated into three well-defined 
types, and that in the absence of further evidence the musk- 
oxen of the continental Barren Grounds are referable to the 
one species, Ovibos moschatus moschatus. Like the buffalo, 
its head, throat, and shoulders are covered with long hair 
arising through a thick coat of under fur, but in the musk-ox 
this long hair covers the greater part of the body, and 
serves to protect the animal from snow, while the thick 
covering of under fur is essential to an animal which Uves 
in some of the coldest and most inhospitable regions of the 
world. The valuable character of its fur has been one of 
the main causes of its great decrease in numbers, as musk- 
ox robes have always been in great demand by fur traders. 

Formerly it was widely distributed in the arctic regions 
of northern Europe and Asia as well as North America, 
and remains of musk-ox have been found in fairly recent 
geological deposits (Pleistocene) in Siberia, Russia, Ger- 
many, Austria, France, and England, with the remains of 
the mammoth, reindeer, and woolly rhinoceros. It is now 
entirely confined to northern Canada, some of the islands 
of the Arctic, and Greenland. It is, as its appearance so 
strongly suggests, a descendant of those prehistoric animals 
that ranged the regions of ice, snow, and rock that in former 
times spread over the land areas of the northern hemi- 
sphere. Within historic times the musk-ox ranged over 
the whole of the Barren Grounds from Alaska and the mouth 
of the Mackenzie River on the west to the Churchill River 
on the east, but to-day the region it occupies is very restricted 
compared with its former distribution, as will be shown later. 

Habits. — In these regions the musk-ox, which does not 
migrate in the manner shown by the barren-ground caribou, 
by reason of its abundant coat of thick hair withstands the 
blizzards and the deep snows, and, with the aid of the furi- 
ous gales which sweep across those wastes, it is able to 
eke out an existence on the dried grasses and creeping wil- 






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92 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

lows that the wmds lay bare. According to MacFarlane, 
during the severest cold it will, sometimes, enter the northern 
fringe of the forest region to a depth of forty or fifty miles. 
With the advent of spring the thick winter coat is shed and 
the animals wander farther north. Mr. Stefansson believes 
they migrate about five miles per month. He states that 
they seem to be unwilUng to cross narrow strips of water, 
and therefore do not migrate from one Arctic island to 
another, as in the case of the caribou. They are gregarious 
in habit and usually live in bands of six to twenty indi- 
viduals, but herds containing as many as one hundred 
animals have been recorded. In these bands there are 
usually but few males; Mr. Stefansson counted 114 ani- 
mals in a single herd on Melville Island. In spite of their 
heavy and ungainly appearance and the shortness of their 
legs, they run with considerable speed. When alarmed 
they show their sheep-like habits. The herd collects to- 
gether, forming a circle around the calves, the larger animals 
facing with their formidable-looking horns the source of 
danger. In this manner they are usually able to withstand 
the attacks of wolves, but the Eskimos take advantage of 
this habit and surround the herd, from which, as a rule, 
not a member escapes, the whole herd being killed (Plate 
VI). This reckless slaughter, sometimes imitated by white 
men, has been the cause of the reduction of the musk-ox 
to the alarmingly small numbers in which they exist to-day. 
When they are able to escape they take to the hills, where 
they are able to ascend precipitous slopes and to traverse 
rocks and crags with astonishing agility, led usually by 
an old bull. The female produces one, rarely two, young 
at the end of May or the beginning of June. Ekblaw (see 
p. 97) records the birth of a musk-ox calf on or about 
April 28, near Canon Fjord, EUesmere Island. The flesh 
of a fat musk-ox is said to be excellent, resembling caribou 
somewhat, but coarser in grain. The bulls may attain a 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 93 

considerable size, Seton having killed a very large old bull 
in August, 1907, on the north shore of Aylmer Lake, where 
it had undoubtedly wandered from the more northern terri- 
tory inhabited by this animal. The bull was estimated to 
weigh 900 pounds. Its total length was 96 inches, and its 
height at shoulder 59 inches. 

Economic Value as Furbearer. — The possession of a large 
and valuable pelt by the musk-ox led to the destruction by 
the Eskimos, Indians, and white traders of every musk-ox 
that could be reached, and the gregarious habits of the 
animal brought about a speedy reduction in its numbers. 
Roderick MacFarlane, a former chief factor of the Hud- 
son's Bay Company, who has contributed so much to our 
knowledge of the animals of the north, gives an account of 
the trade in musk-ox skins. He states: 



The Company's posts at which musk-ox skins are usually traded are 
Fort MacPherson (from the Eastern Coast Eskimos); Forts Good Hope 
and Norman (from the Anderson Eskimos and from post Indians who 
hunt them) ; Rae and Resolution on Great Slave Lake (from Indian hunt- 
ers); Lac du Brochet, Reindeer Lake (from inland Eskimos); and Fort 
Churchm (from the Hudson Bay Eskimos). It is only in recent years, 
however, that the Company has strongly encouraged the hunting of 
musk-oxen, and although there is no record of the sale of any in the 
London Statement, 1853-1877, yet we know that a number of pelts were 
occasionally, if not annually, traded at Forts Churchill and Anderson, 
at least subsequent to 1860, and that they must have been sold there or 
in Montreal (the British Company's market for buffalo robes) as the 
statement of the northern department fur returns for outfit 1865, . . . 
shows that the districts of Mackenzie River and York, Hudson Bay, 
collected 26 and 66 musk-ox skins, respectively, in that year. During 
the last thirty years, the Indians and Eskimos have devoted more 
attention than before to the hunting of this valuable animal. In 1902, 
271 skins and in 1903, 246 skins were exposed for sale, and the average 
for the past twenty years probably ranged between 200 and 250 pelts. 
The greater portion of those secured by the Company are purchased in 
London and re-shipped to and used in Canada and the United States, 
chiefly as sleigh and cutter winter robes. 



94 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

In his report of his exploration trip from Great Slave 
Lake to Chesterfield Inlet via Thelon River, in 1900, J. W. 
Tyrrell states that they first found musk-oxen among the 
lakes in the vicinity of the height of land between the basin 
of the Great Slave Lake and that of the Thelon, and, after 
emphasizing the fact that the musk-oxen are among the 
most valuable resources of the north country, he recom- 
mends that the territory between Thelon and Backs Rivers 
be set aside as a game sanctuary, on account of the rapid 
diminution of their numbers. In his volume, "Through 
the Sub-arctics of Canada," he refers to the musk-ox (pp. 
241-242), and states that he has seen ''musk-ox robes 
stacked by the Eskimos like hay-cocks, along the shore of 
Chesterfield Inlet, awaiting opportunity to market them." 
In 1912 the Hudson's Bay Company established a post at 
Chesterfield Inlet, and I am informed by a recent explorer 
from that region that the natives were being encouraged to 
bring in all the musk-ox robes that it was possible to obtain. 
As the remaining herds of musk-ox are now restricted on 
the mainland to the region between Chesterfield Inlet and 
Backs River, the significance of such hunting is only too 
obvious. 

It had been hoped by many of those of us who are en- 
deavouring to prevent the extermination of this scientifi- 
cally unique and economically valuable animal of our 
Arctic plains that in the interior of the Barren Grounds there 
was an area, more or less inaccessible on account of the diffi- 
culties of travel to the Dog-rib and Yellow-knife Indians 
on the west, and the Eskimos on the east, in which there 
would be less danger of the musk-ox being killed out. Un- 
fortunately, the latest reports indicate that this is a vain 
hope. It is true, as I am reliably informed by one of the 
Hudson's Bay Company's officers, that the western and 
southern range of the musk-ox has been so reduced that it 
was practically impossible to obtain musk-ox skins at the 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 95 

western trading-posts, owing to the great expense entailed 
in fitting out the Indians to hunt them at so great a dis- 
tance away in the interior, but from the Arctic coast on 
the north and the Chesterfield Inlet region on the east, the 
Eskimos, better equipped, and able to travel through ahnost 
any country, were reported to be attacking the remaining 
herds. 

Distribution. — The most recent account of the present 
distribution of the musk-ox, and the extent to which its 
extermination is proceeding, is given in the following re- 
port, which has been kindly prepared at my request by 
Doctor R. M. Anderson, who has had unequalled oppor- 
tunities for collecting information on the subject as chief of 
the southern party of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 
(1913-1916), and on his previous sojourn in the Arctic in 
1908-1912. Doctor Anderson states: 

The musk-ox has been greatly reduced in numbers during the last 
few years. The last musk-ox was killed in the region around Franklin 
Bay about eighteen years ago, and the last records near the coast, west 
of the Coppermine River, were not later than sixteen years ago, in the 
Darnley Bay region. No musk-oxen are left on Banks Island, accord- 
ing to Mr. George H. Wilkins, who has recently returned after spend- 
ing considerable time in 1914, 1915 and 1916, in traversing the greater 
part of Banks Island with the Northern Party of the Canadian Arctic 
Expedition. There were formerly numbers of musk-oxen on Banks 
Island, as is evidenced by skulls and skeletal parts seen frequently 
on the land. According to Mr. Wilkins, Melville Island, which is not 
normally inhabited, has a good many musk-oxen left, and the Western 
Eskimo hunters who were taken north to Winter Harbour to establish a 
base for 1916-1917, were killing a good many musk-oxen in the spring 
of 1916. 

The Indians have within the past few years practically exterminated 
the species around the east of Great Bear Lake. Three to my knowl- 
edge were seen and killed by the Indians there in the winter of 1910-1911, 
and they were said to have finished off a herd of eighty almost com- 
pletely a few years before that. Inspector C. D. LaNauze, R.N.W.M.P., 
reports that the Indians saw a few musk-ox tracks on the north side of 
Great Bear Lake in the summer of 1915. No musk-oxen have been seen 



96 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

for many years near the lower Coppermine. The western Hmit of musk-ox 
near the Arctic coast is now about in the region of the Anniehk River 
(improperly named Unialik), flowing into Grays Bay, about one hundred 
miles east of the mouth of the Coppermine. A few musk-oxen were seen 
near the coast here in May, 1916, but the Eskimos say they are not found 
farther west. Musk-oxen are said to be more common in the very rugged 
country south of Arctic Sound, and a considerable number of skins were 
taken there by Eskimos in the summer of 1915. The Eskimos in that 
region (Bathurst Inlet) are better supplied with rifles than the Eskimos 
farther west in Coronation Gulf and Dolphin and Union Strait, a num- 
ber of them having been recently supplied from a new post to the south- 
eastward, on or near Hudson Bay, so that the last stronghold of the 
continental musk-ox is being pretty rapidly cut into on two sides, and 
the probable decrease in numbers in the past five years, and the next 
five years, will probably be proportionally greater than in any preceding 
twenty-five years. The limits of the inroads of the Dog-rib and Yellow- 
knife Indians had probably been nearly reached long ago, as the In- 
dians are not accustomed to hunt more than a certain distance from 
the edge of the timbered lands. These newly equipped Eskimo hunters 
are accustomed to travel anywhere on the barren grounds with very little 
fuel, burning oil or heather, and there is no region which they cannot 
visit with little trouble. 

When a herd of musk-oxen is seen, it is usually slaughtered, being, 
from the nature of its habits easier to slaughter than most other large 
animals. 

Since the musk-ox, so far as it is found on the mainland of North 
America, is on as decided and as rapid a decline as was the buffalo a few 
years ago, it should be put on the protected list. That would at least 
forestall any possible future market demand for skins, which would accel- 
erate the slaughter, and also reduce temptation for traders to stimulate a 
demand. Although the savages kill a certain number on their own initia- 
tive, they should not be encouraged and abetted in the slaughter by 
traders who have only a temporary interest in the country and who will 
leave the natives to their own devices again as soon as the bulk of the 
game and fur-bearing animals have been destroyed. 

On his return in 1918 from his explorations in the Arctic 
regions of Canada with the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 
Mr. Stefansson informed me that on the islands he visited 
musk-oxen were most abundant on Melville Island, where he 
and his party of seventeen lived on the animals for two sum- 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 97 

mers and one winter, 1915-1916. On this island, he esti- 
mates that there are from 3,000 to 4,000 musk-oxen. Ac- 
cording to the latest reports that he received they appear to 
be extinct on Banks Island, or, if present, are very scarce. 
A few herds were reported from the northeast of Victoria 
Island, but none was reported from Prince Patrick Island. 
He found no musk-oxen on the islands discovered by him, 
nor on the Ringnes Islands. 

At the present time, the chief habitat of the musk-ox in 
Canadian territory appears to be Ellesmere Island. Their 
abundance in that region is shown by Doctor Donald B. 
MacMillan in his account of the Crocker Land Expedition 
of the American Museum of Natural History.* 

In a quotation given by Doctor MacMillan from the 
writings of Sir Clements Markham, it is stated that Elles- 
mere Island ''is called Oo-ming-man (the land of the musk- 
oxen) by the Eskimo." Mr. W. Elmer Ekblaw, a member 
of the Crocker Land Expedition, made traverses of Elles- 
mere Island, and in the account of his explorations which 
is given in Doctor MacMillan 's interesting narrative, he 
states: 

The west coast of Ellesmere Island in the vicinity of Bay Fjord, is not 
generally so precipitous and bleak as the east coast. It is more maturely 
dissected, the valleys are wide, the slopes are less steep and the moun- 
tains do not everywhere rise so abruptly. Large tracts support a rela- 
tively luxuriant growth of willow, sedge and grass, the chief foods of the 
musk-oxen. 

In this place a herd of sixty-seven animais was seen, of 
which fourteen were killed for food. Ekblaw states that the 
excellent condition in which they were found was due, no 
doubt, to the excellent pasturage they found on the grassy 
meadows among the mountains and along the fjord. 

* "Four Years in the White North," by Donald B. MacMillan. Harper 
& Brothers, New York, 1918. 



98 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Travelling up Eureka Sound to the northernmost end of 
Fosheim peninsula, at the mouth of Greely Fjord, Ekblaw 
states: 

All along the way we had seen musk-oxen on the hills on both sides 
of the sound, and we killed all we needed for food. Even on the ice, we 
found their tracks for miles. 



The latter observation would indicate that, contrary to the 
belief of Stefansson, musk-oxen may migrate from one 
island to another when the intervening water is frozen 
over. 

Increased Protection of Musk-ox. — The reduction in the 
numbers of musk-oxen has not only been due to recklessness 
of the natives and the demand for musk-ox robes, but 
thousands have been slain for the support of the various 
Arctic expeditions that have visited or penetrated their 
range. Large numbers have been slaughtered by sports- 
men, and, while no fault is found with those who have killed 
a few individuals for the sake of their heads, or to provide 
specimens for the larger museums, we have evidence that 
a number of men, calling themselves sportsmen, have dis- 
played a passion for slaughtering these animals which rivals 
that of the Eskimo and the game-hog. 

The extermination of the musk-ox is only a matter of a few 
years, unless prompt and adequate steps are taken to put an 
end to the killing of the animal for the sake of its skin. The 
extreme scarcity of the musk-ox is now admitted by the 
fur traders. At the present time I am informed that the 
price in Canada varies from $50 to 1350 a robe, according 
to the size and quality. In some cases it takes two or three 
skins to make a robe. In a comparatively recent adver- 
tisement in The Gazette (Montreal), of musk-ox robes offered 
for sale by one of the leading dealers in these supplies, the 
following statement is made as an inducement to purchase: 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 99 

This animal whose fur is much finer than that of the buffalo is be- 
coming very rare and the skins will soon be absolutely unobtainable. 

One of the leading fur merchants in New York, who deals 
exclusively in raw furs, and through whose hands more 
musk-ox skins pass, perhaps, than through those of any 
other firm, in response to my inquiries courteously supplied 
me with the following information, in November, 1916, re- 
garding the trade in musk-ox robes: 

Most of these goods are brought down by whalers, some of which go 
into San Francisco or Seattle, and others into New Bedford [Mass.J. 
Also the Hudson's Bay Co. collects a fair quantity every year. 

I personally have had a vessel up on the Hudson Bay for quite a few 
years, and we collect a few from the height-of-land which is situated 
about 100 miles northwest of Wager River. These animals are becoming 
more and more extinct, as, ten years ago, if you wanted to get a quan- 
tity you would only have to go up to that country and you could get them, 

but the parcel we sold Messrs. [a Montreal firm], about 160 skins, 

represented three or four years' collection; so there is no doubt but what 
they will get scarcer. 

The Hudson's Bay Company has very kindly furnished 
me with a statement showing their annual returns of musk- 
ox skins from 1864, which may be taken as a good criterion 
of the extent to which the musk-oxen were hunted for their 
skins. From 1864 to 1878 the number of skins received by 
the company did not exceed 200 annually. From that year 
the number increased until 1881, when over 600 were re- 
ceived. In the following eight years the numbers decreased, 
and then rose again in 1890 to over 1,400 skins. The high- 
est level was reached in 1892, when nearly 2,000 skins were 
received. Since that year there has been an almost steady 
decUne in the number, the lowest level being in 1907, when 
less than 100 skins were received, and only once, that is 
1912, has the number slightly exceeded 200. We have no 
record of the large number of musk-ox skins taken out an- 



100 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

nually by way of the Arctic coast by whalers and traders 
to San Francisco and Seattle. 

The best fur traders now admit that the musk-ox can 
only be saved from extermination by the absolute prohibi- 
tion of its slaughter for commercial purposes. 

In 1914, and again in 1916, I laid before the Commission 
of Conservation specific recommendations regarding the 
amendment of the Northwest Game Act to secure much- 
needed protection of our northern mammals, including the 
musk-ox :* 

(a) The prohibition of the kiUing of the musk-ox except 
under Hcense, which should not permit the taking by bona 
fide hunters or other duh^ authorized persons, of more 
than two skins and two heads under each license. Na- 
tives or bona fide explorers to be allowed to kill musk-oxen 
for food for their own use, but not in order to secure the 
skins. 

(b) The prohibition of the killing of musk-oxen on Vic- 
toria, Banks, and Melville Islands, thereby constituting these 
islands permanent reserves for musk-oxen and as centres 
for their natural distribution to other parts. 

These recommendations have since been put into effect 
in the Northwest Game. Act, 1917, and the regulations 
thereunder, which provide for the permanent protection 
of the musk-ox, except in such zones and during such 
period as may be prescribed under the act, and at the pres- 
ent time the killing of musk-oxen is everywhere forbidden 
in Canadian territory. Section 38 of the regulations sets 
forth the sole conditions under which musk-oxen may now 
be killed; the section reads as follows: 

38. Musk-ox may be hunted and killed by Indians, Eskimos or half- 
breeds who are bona fide inhabitants of the Northwest Territories, but 
only when they are actually in need of the meat of such musk-ox to pre- 

* Seventh Anniml Report, Commission of Conservation, 1916, p. 33. 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 101 

vent starvation. No person shall at any time trade or traffic in musk-ox 
or any part thereof, and the possession of the skins of such musk-ox by 
any other person than the said Indians, Eskimos or half-breeds shall 
constitute an offence. 

In another chapter (p. 313), the utihzation of the musk-ox 
as an economic factor in the development of Arctic Canada 
is discussed. 

We hope that the absolute close season for a number of 
years will prevent its complete disappearance within a very 
few years from our northern Barren Grounds, where it has 
maintained itself in those Arctic solitudes for thousands of 
years before the advent of the white man and his deadly 
rifle. 

BEARS 

Canada possesses, in numerical abundance of the chief 
species of bears, by far the greatest portion of the bear 
population of North America. The enormous extent of the 
coast and islands of Arctic Canada constitutes the chief 
habitat of the polar bear. The Rocky Mountains and the 
mountain ranges flanking them in British Columbia now form 
the chief region in which the grizzly bear, which has been 
largely wiped out in its more southerly range, is to be 
found; its near relative, the Barren-ground grizzly, is only 
to be met with in the treeless northern region; while the 
black bear occurs everywhere in the wooded regions from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific, and nowhere throughout this 
extensive range can it be said to be very uncommon; in 
certain regions it is very common. From all standpoints, 
therefore, we are particularly fortunate in our bear popula- 
tion, and a special responsibility accordingly rests upon us 
to take such measures as may be necessary to conserve so 
interesting and, at the same time, so economically valu- 
able a section of the native manamalian fauna of this 
continent. 



102 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

The Polar Bear {Thalardos maritimus) 
(plate ex) 

From the Alaskan-Canadian boundary on the northwest, 
along the Arctic shores of the Northwest Territories, the 
Hudson Bay and Labrador, and throughout the islands of 
the Canadian Arctic, this magnificent denizen of the polar 
seas, whose very name conjures up a vision of deep-blue Arc- 
tic seas and fringing ice-floes, withstands the rigours of the 
north and the persecution of the hunters of his splendid 
skin. In the solitude of the Arctic this animal, so splen- 
didly endowed by nature for such an environment of ice 
and frigid waters, hunts its food along the edge of the ice- 
pack and drifting floes, where he may secure, by patient 
hunting, the cautious seal. Whatever animal remains are 
east ashore are acceptable, and only during the short 
Arctic summer is it able to resort to vegetable food such as 
constitutes a large portion of the food of his more southerly 
relatives. 

As a rule only the more hardy males face the long Arctic 
winter out-of-doors. The female usually hibernates in 
some convenient cavity, and there, buried under the deep 
snow, she brings forth her cubs, which rely on their mother 
for their sole supply of food during the winter months they 
spend in the little ice cavern, that is formed by the com- 
bined heat of their bodies. With the advent of spring they 
are released from their snow prison, and the fish and wild 
fowl form their food until the melting of the snow uncovers 
the sparse supply of vegetable food, such as herbage, roots, 
and Arctic berries. 

Many years of excessive hunting have materially reduced 
the numbers of the polar bear, especially in the western 
Arctic, and they are in serious need of protection. The 
Hudson's Bay Company's returns show that in the decade. 



PLATE IX 




Frmn pluilof/raphs of groups in tin Ai/urican Museum of Xaluial 
Ilistury. Reproduced by couilmj oj the Museum 

1. Polar Bear 

2. Black Bear, showing colour phases 

3. Rocky Mountain Goat 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 103 

1902-11, the number of white bear skins offered for sale at 
their auctions in London, England, ranged from a maxi- 
mum of 170 in 1902, to a minimum of 82 in 1911, and the 
average number offered was only 97. These figures tell 
their own story, and indicate most strongly the urgent 
necessity of increased protection which this animal must un- 
questionably receive and, we hope, will receive in the future. 
It constitutes an economic resource of no mean value, apart 
from the obvious duty of preventing so unique a species 
of mammal from reaching the point of extinction in the 
territories under our control and supervision. 

Grizzly Bear (Ursus horribilis) 

Distribution. — The fame of the North American grizzly 
is world-wide. In the days when the buffalo was abundant, 
and up to the early part of the last century, it ranged the 
western plains, foot-hills, and mountains with its supremacy 
unchallenged. The buffalo bull fell beneath its powerful 
blows, but now in its mountain retreats it more usually 
contents itself with such infinitely smaller prey as mice and 
ants. 

From the journals of Alexander Henry we learn that in 
1800 it occurred in southwestern Manitoba, and the capture 
of grizzlies at Portage la Prairie will appear somewhat as- 
tonishing to the residents of to-day in that region. This 
was its most easterly range; and westward and southward 
it ranged the plains and foot-hills of the Rockies. The dis- 
appearance of the buffalo and the systematic hunting of 
the grizzly, which in the early days was both dangerous and 
destructive to the cattle and horses on the range, led to its 
extermination over practically the whole of the non-moun- 
tainous portion of its range. Even in the mountains it 
is nowhere common at the present time. The greatest 
number are to be found in the Rocky Mountains and their 



104 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

adjacent ranges in British Columbia. The eastern slopes 
of the Rocky Mountains form the easterly limit of the range 
of the grizzly in Canada. Northward it may be found as 
far as the mountains west of the Mackenzie delta. In Al- 
berta they appear to be most abundant in the mountains 
immediately north of Jasper Park. Throughout the Rocky 
and Selkirk Mountains in British Columbia grizzlies may be 
found in varying abundance. In some sections they are by 
no means uncommon; in the Kootenay region, for example, 
they are not difficult to find by strenuous hunting. In 1915, 
I reached the remote and beautifully situated remnant of a 
former prosperous gold-mining settlement bearing the name 
of Trout Lake City (to distinguish it from Trout Lake) a 
few days after three grizzlies, a female and two grown cubs, 
had been killed in front of the small schoolhouse. In the 
Stikine Mountains grizzly bears can be found in fair abun- 
dance. 

Habits. — The grizzly bear has the unenviable reputation 
of being the most dangerous of our big-game animals; and 
this reputation is well deserved, for no animal is more power- 
ful and more tenacious of life when wounded. But this 
reputation was largely gained in the early days of the 
West, when the arrows of the Indians and the primitive 
firearms of white men served more to annoy than to de- 
stroy him, and when the human aggressor often forfeited 
his life. His ability to bring to earth, and often drag for 
some distance, a buffalo, steer, or horse naturally inspired 
an appreciation of his immense strength. 

But the grizzly of to-day is a different animal from the 
former monarch of the foot-hills and mountains. In his re- 
treat to the mountains he has accepted not merely the su- 
periority of man himself but of man armed with the modern 
high-powered repeating rifles, the instrument that has put 
fear into the hearts of all members of our wild life that have 
escaped its destructive effect. As Thompson Seton has so 



THE GAME ANIMALS OP CANADA 105 

well said, in referring to this change in the creed of the 
grizzly: 

No longer the arrogant despot of all trails and ranges, he has retreated 
to secluded fastnesses, to wild inaccessible regions of thicket and swamp. 
He is changed in temper as in life, and the faintest whiff of man-scent is 
now enough to drive him miles away. 

This acquired and now inborn dislike of man, which is 
perhaps more correct than fear in the case of the grizzly, 
is a fortunate factor so far as the continued existence of the 
grizzly is concerned. It means, first, that such a tendency 
to seclusion will be an important aid to the preservation of 
the species, if only the required amount of additional legal 
protection is also given. Secondly, it means that, being no 
longer the menace it formerly constituted to horses, cattle, 
or sheep on the ranges, or to man himself, it cannot be classed 
as a highly noxious animal. The dislike for man renders 
possible the protection of the grizzly in our national parks, 
where there is little chance, so far as the bear is concerned, 
of familiarity breeding contempt. The remoteness of its 
range from well-travelled haunts and its preference for se- 
clusion may aid in its preservation. 

Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to assume that the 
grizzly has lost its dangerous attributes. This is by no 
means the case. While its attitude is one of defense rather 
than aggression, no more dangerous assailant can be met 
than a grizzly that is cornered, or that imagines that he 
is cornered. Females accompanied by cubs are usually 
to be avoided by an unarmed person, as in the majority 
of cases they will be likely to attack on suspicion. Unless 
one is well prepared to defend one's right of way, it is 
advisable not to attempt to dispute a grizzly's right to 
the same trail. He is likely to resent the interference with 
what he is perhaps justified in regarding as his rights. No 
animal is more dangerous than a wounded grizzly, and its 



106 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

great strength and tenacity of life in spite of repeated shots 
into non-vital parts is very great. Only a direct hit in the 
brain or spinal column will make approach to a wounded 
animal really safe. 

In some localities the grizzly bear seems to prefer the 
open country to the woods, and his chosen habitat is the 
open and generally rocky mountain uplands of the divides, 
where sparse timber, dense growth of thickets, and occa- 
sional swamps furnish him with suitable environment. 

He frequents the open ground only through necessity — 
the search for food. It is only for a month or two in the 
summer that the male seeks the company of the female 
bear. As long as they can secure food in the fall and win- 
ter they do not go into hibernation. Grizzly bears are 
largely carnivorous, provided they can secure animal food, 
and they will eat anything from steers to mice. Nothing 
is too small to escape the long claws of these animals, by 
means of which they can pick the mountain berries, and 
unearth succulent roots, and insects as small as ants. Be- 
fore winter covers the mountains with snow they retire to 
their winter quarters in some convenient cavity or natural 
den in the rocks, or a den excavated in the mountainside, 
and there in midwinter the female brings forth her small 
cubs; usually two cubs are born, sometimes three, rarely 
four. The small size of the newly born cubs of bears is one 
of the striking features of these animals. The newly born 
young of the grizzly bear usually measures only about eight 
or nine inches in length, a remarkable size for the young of 
an animal of which the adult male may weigh from 500 to 
600 pounds. The cubs usually remain with the mother the 
first year, but lead a separate existence thereafter. 

The most distinctive characters of the grizzly bear are 
the high shoulder region, formed by a distinct hump, the 
great length of the front claws, which are twice the length 
of those of the hind feet, and the somewhat hollow facial 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 107 

region. In colour great variation is found. The normal 
colour is deep brown to brownish black, with the outer por- 
tions of the longer hairs tipped with light gray, which gives 
the name ''silver- tip." In some cases the fur is com- 
pletely or partly gray; in others it varies from dark brown 
to cinnamon, and R. H. Chapman, of Washington, D. C, 
recently showed me the skins of a female and two cubs, 
obtained near Revelstoke, B. C, which were of a distinctly 
reddish shade. 

Not only is there great variation in the colour of the skins 
of grizzly bears, but marked differences in the skulls are 
also to be found, and, as a result of these, striking anatom- 
ical differences in the cranial and dental characters. Doc- 
tor C. Hart Merriam, who has kindly demonstrated to me 
these differences in the very extensive series of skulls that 
he has collected, has described a large number of species and 
sub-species within the grizzly-bear group. 

The Barren-Ground Grizzly Bear {Ursus 
richardsoni) 

Throughout the Barren Grounds this species may be 
found, but it does not appear to be anywhere abundant. 
Its occurrence along the Arctic coast was reported by the 
early explorers, Samuel Hearne, Franklin, and Richardson. 
It was found in the neighbourhood of the Coppermine River 
and Bathurst Inlet. In J. B. Tyrrell's explorations in 1900 
evidence of its occurrence on the Thelon was found, and 
J. M. Bell saw, during the same season, these large greyish- 
brown bears quite often along the north and west shores 
of Great Bear Lake. 

In his account of northern manmials MacFarlane states: 
"This bear is not uncommon in the Barren Grounds of the 
Anderson region, nor on the polar shores of Franklin Bay." 
He recounts a number of instances illustrating the danger- 



108 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

ous character of this formidable animaL It is omnivorous 
in its habits, and in the stomachs of specimens that have 
been killed the remains of venison, seal, marmot, berries, 
edible roots, and grass have been found, showing the varied 
nature of the diet upon which it subsists. 



Black Bear (Ursus americanus) 

(plate ix) 

Everjrwhere throughout the wooded regions of Canada, 
from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, this, our most com- 
mon and famihar bear, is to be found in greater or less 
abundance. Its range is practically co-extensive with our 
northern forests, for, unlike the aforementioned species of 
bear, the black bear is essentially a forest species, and its 
northward distribution is limited by the limit of forest 
growth. The fur returns of the Hudson's Bay Company 
would indicate that this species, in common with the other 
species of bears, shows a tendency exhibited by the other 
fur-bearing animals to periodic increase and decrease in 
abundance. The greatest number of skins was obtained by 
the Hudson's Bay Company in 1889 and 1892, when about 
11,500 were received annually, but, since 1900, the num- 
bers have gradually declined, and in 1915 only 4,500 skins 
were obtained. Nevertheless, no trip can be made into the 
woods in any section of Canada without evidences or speci- 
mens of this bear being encountered. It is a shy animal, 
and for that reason it is less conmaonly seen than might 
otherwise be expected. But its retiring habits are to its 
advantage, and so long as the main evidence of its existence 
in a region lies in the presence of its well-worn trails, claw- 
marked trees, and overturned stones or rotting logs, it can- 
not be considered an objectionable neighbour. Frequently 
it would not be seen by travellers in the woods were it not 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 109 

for its spirit of curiosity in the doings of human intruders 
into its haunts. 

Black bears usually mate about June or July, and they 
part a little later. The young are born in January, while 
the mother is still in her winter den, which may be a natural 
cavity in the rocks, under a fallen tree or its upturned roots, 
or even in a hole dug by the bear herself. Usually two cubs 
are born, but three are not uncommon. The newly born 
cub is remarkably small. It measures about eight inches 
long and weighs from nine to twelve ounces. When the 
spring sun melts the snow and ice in the woods the mother 
leaves her winter quarters and sallies forth with her young 
family, than which no more interesting or amusing young- 
sters can be found in the whole realm of wild life. The 
brown or cinnamon-coloured bear is merely a colour-variety 
of the black bear. In the same Utter of cubs one may find 
both black and brown varieties. 

For some time in the spring the black bear subsists largely 
on roots of various plants, supplemented by an occasional 
mouse or insect, for it is omnivorous to a degree. Insects 
constitute a large part of their diet. In the spring and 
early summer bears frequenting lakes and streams feed 
extensively on May-fiies and shad-flies. Hearne states that 
they may catch these insects by swimming with their mouths 
open, and he found their stomachs filled with these insects. 

As summer wears on they hunt out the nests of bees and 
rob the accumulated stores of honey or brood. In the hunt 
for such delicacies their abihty to climb trees stands them 
in good stead. Nor do they hesitate to attack any wasps' 
or hornets' nests. The nests of ants are sought in rotting 
logs or under stones, etc., and the ants and larvae are greedily 
devoured. 

Where fish can be obtained they are very acceptable, 
and the black bears in British Columbia are especially fa- 
voured by the large quantities of salmon that they are able 



110 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

to obtain without much trouble. Scavenging is a favourite 
occupation, and near human habitations their predilection 
for garbage is well known. In the autumn they take full 
advantage of nature's lavish provision of wild fruits. Wild 
strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, blueberries, and other 
small fruits are greedily devoured, together with the more 
satisfying acorns and beechnuts, which enable them to lay 
up the necessary store of fat for absorption during the win- 
ter's rest and enforced fast. In British Columbia I have 
seen orchards bordering the woods assiduously robbed by 
bears, which may become a nuisance on this account. 

In spite of its shyness and normal desire to escape when 
man approaches, the black bear can be a dangerous animal 
when her cubs are in danger or when the adult animal is 
wounded or cornered. On such occasions it can prove a 
formidable foe to an unarmed man. But under ordinary 
circumstances the black bear is no more to be feared than 
most of the timid creatures of the woods. 

Kermode's White Bear (Ursus kermodei) 

On the islands of the northern coast of British Columbia, 
and on the adjacent coast of the mainland, is to be found a 
white bear. The type specimen was killed on Gribbell 
Island in May, 1904, by Mr. F. Kermode, the director of 
the Provincial Museum, Victoria, B. C, after whom the 
species was named. Mr. Kermode informs me that this 
interesting species, which is illustrated herewith, is found 
from South Bentinck Arm to Burke Channel, north along 
the coast region, including Swindle, Princess Royal, Gribbell, 
and all the larger islands except the Queen Charlotte group; 
to Nass River, and up the Skeena River as far as Kitsum- 
gallum. 

The records of specimens killed, which are given in the 
Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, show 



THE GAME ANIMALS OF CANADA 111 

that most of the bears have been killed on the islands, 
particularly on Princess Royal and Gribbell Islands. As 
Mr. Kermode has pointed out to me, this does not mean 
that they are any more common on the islands than on 
the adjacent coast of the mainland; but it shows that they 
are more easily seen and hunted on mountain slides on 
these islands. There are no white goats; whereas, on the 
mainland, when observed from a distance, these bears are 
likely to be mistaken for goats, owing to their size and 
cream-white colour, both these animals being found on the 
open grassy shde country, which is a favourite feeding- 
ground for bear in the spring. 

Protection of Bears 

Attention already has been called to the great need of 
givmg protection to the polar bear, which is rapidly de- 
creasing in numbers in the more accessible regions of the 
Canadian Arctic coast, although their numbers are, no doubt, 
being maintained to a greater degree on the more remote 
islands of the Arctic. 

Only in the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia 
are there close seasons or bag limits on black bears. In 
Quebec a close season on the black bear is maintained from 
July 1 to August 20, which covers the mating season. 
In British Columbia a close season on the black bear was 
instituted in 1918; this season is from July 1 to September 
30. In view of the great decrease of grizzly bears in the 
United States, owing to the absence of any restrictions on 
the killing of this animal, it would seem very desirable to 
give it more protection in Canada, as continuous and assidu- 
ous hunting will undoubtedly seriously jeopardize its future, 
and a bag limit should be fixed, if only as a precautionary 
measure. I received a report of big-game hunting in 1916 
in the Cassiar region of British Columbia, in which one 



112 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

hunter from the United States had five grizzly bears to his 
credit. Comment on such butchery disguised under the 
name of ''sport" is hardly necessary, but it indicates the 
abuse on the part of unscrupulous persons that is liable to 
accompany the absence of any restriction. Bears will prob- 
ably hold their own in our mountains and forests for many 
years to come, even without protection, owing to their dis- 
like for man and the sparse population in or near their 
haunts. But there are a number of adverse natural factors 
that tend to reduce their range, of which, perhaps, the chief 
is forest fires; and it is with a view to counterbalancing the 
effect of such factors and the gradual diminution of their 
range by the increase of settlement and population that 
some form of protection should be granted this interesting 
and economically valuable group of our wild life while such 
protection will have the desired effect. 



CHAPTER V 
THE BUFFALO OR BISON 

Its Present, Past, and Future 

The history of the buffalo in North America constitutes 
one of the greatest tragedies in animal life in historical 
times. The extent of its destruction appals one by its im- 
mensity when we consider the character of the animal. It 
would seem inconceivable that this, the largest of the wild 
fauna of our continent, should within the limits of the last 
century, be reduced from countless millions to the point of 
extermination. Formerly ranging over about one- third of 
the entire continent, it has been practically wiped out of 
existence except for small bands of so-called "wood bison,*' 
now to be found in the region north of Peace River. That 
its disappearance was an inevitable result of the develop- 
ment of the country does not diminish the character of the 
tragedy. It is the greatest of all our wild animals, and un- 
doubtedly the most noble of its family in any part of the 
world. Now, it has practically disappeared from the face 
of the continent, and only by the foresight of the Canadian 
and United States Governments has it been prevented from 
becoming completely exterminated. The history of its dis- 
appearance and the most complete account we have of this 
noble member of our native fauna have been given by Horna- 
day in his memoir, '^The Extermination of the American 
Bison," and it is from this work that I have taken most of 
the facts that I am about to give regarding its history. 

Its former range in North America, according to Horna- 
day, was as follows: ''Starting almost at tide-water on the 
Atlantic coast, it extended westward through a vast tract 

113 



114 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

of dense forest, across the Alleghany Mountain system to the 
prairies along the Mississippi, and southward to the delta 
of that great stream. Although the great plains country 
of the west was the natural home of the species, where it 
flourished most abundantly, it also wandered south across 
Texas to the burning plains of northeastern Mexico, west- 
ward across the Rocky Mountains into New Mexico, Utah, 
Idaho, and northward across a vast treeless waste to the 
bleak and inhospitable shores of the Great Slave Lake it- 
self." 

Early Distribution in Canada. — The favourite range of the 
buffalo in Canada was the northern extension of the great 
plains region, lying between the Missouri River and the 
Great Slave Lake. The most northerly record of its occur- 
rence was made by Franklin in 1820, when he found it at 
Slave Point, on the north side of Great Slave Lake. In 
1829 Richardson defined the easterly distribution of the 
buffalo in Canada as follows: ''They do not frequent any 
of the districts formed of primitive rocks, and the limits of 
their range to the eastward, within the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany's territories, may be correctly marked on the map by 
a line commencing in longitude 97 degrees on the Red River, 
which flows into the south end of Lake Winnipeg, crossing 
the Saskatchewan to the northward of Basquian Hill* and 
running thence to the Athapescowf ; thence to the east end of 
Great Slave Lake. Their migrations westward were formerly 
Umited to the Rocky Mountain range and they are still 
unknown in New Caledonia and on the .shores of the Pacific 
to the north of the Columbia River; but of late years they 
have found out a passage across the mountains near the 
sources of the Saskatchewan and their numbers to the 
westward are annually increasing." 

As late as 1871 the buffalo inhabited the shore of Great 
Slave Lake, as is shown by a letter from E. W. Nelson to 

* Pasquia Hills. t Lake Athabaska. 



PLATE X 





BUFFALO BONES PHOTOGRAPHED BY MR. 
AUGUST 9, 1890 



HUGH LUMSDEN. C.E., 



This is probably the largest accumulation of buffalo bones ever made in Canada. 
They were piled along the siding just then constructed at Saskatoon. The piles 
■were about eight feet wde and eight feet high, the skulls being built up on the out- 
side and all broken .skulls and other bones thrown into the centre 

The bones were gathered by Indians and half-breeds from a radius of, say, 12 or 15 
miles around that point. They were sold at from $.5.00 to $7.00 per ton to buyers 
from Minneapolis, U. S., and were used for the manufacture of bone charcoal. Mr. 
Lumsden estimated that these bones represented the remains of over 25,000 Buffalo 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 115 

J. A. Allen, dated July 11, 1877, and quoted by Hornaday. 
Nelson states: ''I have met here [he was writing from St. 
Michael, Alaska] two gentlemen who crossed the moun- 
tains from British Columbia and came to Fort Yukon 
through British America, from whom I have derived some 
information about the buffalo (Bison americanus) which will 
be of interest to you. These gentlemen descended the Peace 
River and on about the one hundred and eighteenth degree 
of longitude made a portage to Hay River, directly north. 
On this portage they saw thousands of buffalo skulls and 
old trails, in some instances two or three feet deep, leading 
east and west. They wintered on Hay River near its en- 
trance into Great Slave Lake and here found the buffalo still 
common, occupying a restricted territory along the southern 
border of the lake. This was in 1871. They made inquiry 
concerning the large number of skulls seen on the portage 
and learned that about fifty years before, snow fell to the 
estimated depth of 14 feet, and so enveloped the animals 
that they perished by thousands. It is asserted that these 
buffaloes are larger than those of the plains." It should be 
pointed out in passing that the only herd of wild buffalo 
(as opposed to those enclosed in government reserves) is 
to be found in the region referred to above. Further de- 
tails regarding this herd will be given later. 

The buffalo was migratory in its habits, and in this re- 
spect it differed from most of the other terrestrial quad- 
rupeds of America. In the spring, on the return of mild 
weather, it migrated about 300 or 400 miles northward to 
feed on the better pasturage it found there, and in the fall, 
when winter approached, it left its range, extending from 
the Peace River southward, and the great herds moved 
south. This migratory habit was no doubt responsible for 
the failure of the buffalo to break up into local races, ex- 
cept possibly in the case of the buffalo occupying the afore- 
mentioned region southwest of Great Slave Lake. The 





p/icrric 
ocEJfrt 



MEXICO 



GVir OF 

ncxico 

n 



ATLAhTIC 



OC£An 



MAP ILLUSTRATING THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE BISON 

The outer dark line indicates tlie area formerly inhabited by Bison 
{Mainly after J. A. Allen) 

The inner shaded areas indicate the range of the great northern and southern herds 

in 1870, after the building of the Union Pacific Railway 

(After Hornaday) 

The present distribution of the chief Bison herds is indicated by the following numbers : 

1. Range of Wood Bison 

2. Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta. 

3. Montana National Bison Range, Dixon, Mont. 

4. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming 
6. Salt Lake City, Utah 

6. Pierre, South Dakota 

7. La Vela Pass, Colorado 

8. Wichita National Game Reserve, Cache, Okla. 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 117 

migratory movements of the buffalo are described by Alex- 
ander Henry in " The Manuscript Journals of Alexander 
Henry and of David Thompson, 1799-1814," from which 
Seton has taken the extracts given in his "Life Histories of 
Northern Mammals," which are given below: 

18 September, 1800. The plain was covered. . . . They were mov- 
ing southward slowly, and the meadow seemed as if in motion. 
7 November, Great herd of cows going at full speed southward. 
1 January, 1801. Buffalo in great abundance . . . the plains were en- 
tirely covered; all were moving in a body from north to south. 
14 January. The ground was covered [with buffalo] at every point 
of the compass, as far as the eye could reach, and every animal 
was in motion. 

During January, 1803, Henry found the country from Park 
River, N. Dak., to the Riding Mountains crowded with buf- 
falo. These definite records of Henry's not only give exact 
information regarding the migration of the buffalo, but they 
also serve to convey an idea of their immense numbers. 

Hind, who led the expedition which explored the Cana- 
dian prairies in 1859, found that the Saskatchewan herd 
wintered in central Saskatchewan in a region of which Sas- 
katoon now occupies approximately the central point. This 
observation on the wintering habit of this herd is of inter- 
est as indicating the suitability of that region as a wintering 
place for the buffalo. 

The Destruction of the Buffalo. — But to gain an adequate 
idea of the immense nature of the herds of buffalo that in- 
habited the plains and prairies the reader must consult 
Hornaday's account. The vast herds seemed to clothe the 
prairies in a coat of brown. They were as thick as the leaves 
in the forest. These countless herds greeted the advance 
guards of civilization and that process spelled their doom. 

The history of the buffalo was only an illustration on 
the largest possible scale of the history of every species of 
wild animal when man invades its natural haunts with an 



118 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

unrestrained desire to kill. No part of our wild life can 
withstand the destructive influence of men armed with 
modern guns; man and gun spell their doom, and the only 
salvation for any species is the restriction by law of the 
number that may be killed. These considerations, however, 
had no import in the early days of the buffalo. It was 
faced with men armed with powerful firearms, who killed 
without any regard for the future, and there was a complete 
absence of any restrictions on the part of all the governments 
concerned. The Indians, who had always regarded the 
buffalo as the source of their meat supply, had their point 
of view entirely changed in so far as the number of animals 
to be killed was concerned. Their passion for killing was 
inflamed by the example of the white hunters, with serious 
economic results when their source of meat was wiped out. 
Various methods of slaughter were followed. The ex- 
traordinary stupidity of the animals made them an easy 
prey for the still-hunters. Still-hunting (Plate XI) was 
conducted on business lines, and was highly profitable when 
over a hundred animals could be killed from one stand, and 
the robes were worth two dollars and four dollars each. The 
practice of hunting on horseback provided an exciting sport, 
and when the hunters — white, half-breed, and Indians — went 
out in armies the results were disastrous to the herds, par- 
ticularly as the cows were especially chosen, owing to the 
superior value of their skins. A favourite method employed 
by the Indians was that of impounding or killing the animals 
in pens, into which they were driven. This method was 
commonly practised by the Plains Crees in the South Sas- 
katchewan country. The terrible scenes that attended these 
wholesale slaughters of the herds are beyond description. 
Other methods of slaughter on a large scale were surround- 
ing, decoying, and driving the animals, and all tended 
towards the same end — complete extermination of the herds. 
As the animals became more scarce the half-breeds and In- 



PLATE XI 




Fro?7i Hind 



CREE INDIANS lAIPOUNDING BISON 



^ m"*-^' 




t^^*a^BB«|H|iJ^**<-^ 






STlLL-HUNTlNG BISON 
From the painting by J. H. Moser in tlio National Museum, Washington, D. C. 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 119 

dians vied with the white hunters in destroying them. 
Far more buffalo were destroyed than could possibly be 
utilized, but this could not long continue. No longer did 
the prairies thunder with the sound of thousands of gallop- 
ing hoofs. The great herds were driven farther and farther 
afield. Indians who formerly merely cut out the tongues 
of their victims, if they took any part of the carcass at all, 
now almost starved for want of food. In 1857 the Plains 
Crees, inhabiting the country around the headwaters of the 
Qu'Appelle River, decided that, on account of the rapid de- 
struction of the buffalo by white men and half-breeds, 
they would not permit them to travel in their country, or 
travel through it except for the purpose of trading for their 
dried meat, pemmican, or robes. In the following year the 
Crees reported that between the North and the South Sas- 
katchewan Rivers buffalo were very scarce. Hind's expedi- 
tion in 1859 saw only one buffalo between Winnipeg and 
Sandhill Lake, at the head of the Qu'Appelle near the South 
Saskatchewan, where they encountered the first herd. 

Catlin has given some idea of the enormous numbers that 
were killed during the first half of the nineteenth century. 
In 1832 he stated that 150,000 to 200,000 robes were mar- 
keted annually, which meant a slaughter of 2,000,000, or 
perhaps 3,000,000 buffalo. So great was the destruction 
that he prophesied its extermination within eight or ten 
years ! Fremont about the same time also bore witness to 
the appalling destruction. 

The death-knell was struck when the construction of the 
Union Pacific Railway was begun at Omaha, in 1865. 
Previous to the advent of the first transcontinental railway 
the difficulties of marketing the results of the slaughter 
served as a slight check on the rate of extermination, for, 
although they were being killed out at a rate greatly in ex- 
cess of their natural increase, they would have existed for 
some years longer than the coming of the railroads and ad- 



120 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

ditional swarms of white hunters rendered possible. This 
railroad divided the original great body of buffalo into 
southern and northern herds. That was the beginning of 
the end. Although the range of the northern herd was 
about twice as extensive as that of the southern, the latter 
contained probably twice as many buffaloes. Hornaday 
estimates that in 1871 the southern herd contained about 
3,000,000 animals, although most estimates give a higher 
total than this. 

The slaughter of the southern herd began in 1871, and 
reached its height two years later. From 1871 to 1873 the 
wastefulness was prodigious. The number of skins that 
were marketed bore no indication of the enormous slaughter. 
In four short years the great southern herd was wiped out 
of existence, and by 1875 it had ceased to exist. 

By the time the destruction of the northern herd com- 
menced in earnest, buffaloes in Canada had already become 
very scarce. The remnants of our former herds were assidu- 
ously hunted by the Indians as they constituted their main 
supply of food. As Hornaday states: "The herds of British 
America had been almost totally exterminated by the time 
the final slaughter of our northern herd was inaugurated 
by the opening of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1880. 
The Canadian Pacific Railway played no part whatever in 
the extermination of the buffalo in the British possessions, 
for it had already taken place. The half-breeds of Mani- 
toba, the Plains Crees of Qu'Appelle and the Blackfeet of 
the South Saskatchewan country swept bare a great belt of 
country stretching east and west between the Rocky Moun- 
tains and Manitoba. The Canadian Pacific Railway found 
only bleaching bones in the country through which it passed. 
The buffalo had disappeared from that entire region before 
1879 and left the Blackfeet Indians on the verge of star- 
vation. A few thousand buffaloes still remained in the 
country between the headwaters of the Battle River, be- 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 121 

tween the North and South Saskatchewan, but they were 
surrounded and attacked from all sides, and their numbers 
diminished rapidly until all were killed." 

"The latest information I have been able to obtain in. 
regard to the disappearance of this northern band," Horna- 
day continues, "has been kindly furnished by Prof. C. A. 
Kenaston, who in 1881, and also in 1883, made a thorough 
exploration of the country between Winnipeg and Fort Ed- 
monton for the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. His 
four routes between the two points named covered a vast 
r>cope of country, several hundred miles in width. In 1881 
at Moose Jaw ... he saw a party of Cree Indians who had 
just arrived from the north-west with several carts laden 
with fresh buffalo meat. At Fort Saskatchewan, on the 
North Saskatchewan River, just below Edmonton, he saw 
a party of English sportsmen who had recently been hunt- 
ing on the Battle and Red Deer rivers, between Edmonton 
and Fort Calgary, where they had found buffaloes, and 
killed as many as they cared to slaughter. In one after- 
noon they killed fourteen, and could have killed more had 
they been more bloodthirsty. In 1883 Prof. Kenaston 
found the fresh trail of a band of twenty-five or thirty buf- 
faloes at the ' elbow' of the South Saskatchewan. Excepting 
in the above instances he saw no further traces of buffalo, 
nor did he hear of any in all the country he explored.* In 
1881 he saw many Cree Indians at Fort Qu'Appelle in a 
starving condition, and there was no penmaican nor buffalo 
meat at the fort. In 1883, however, a little pemmican 
found its way to Winnipeg where it sold at 15 cents per 
pound, an exceedingly high price. It had been made that 

* In October, 1884, a Canadian Pacific tri-weekly train from Calgary to 
Winnipeg was boarded at way stations by passengers laden with rifles, sad- 
dles, and other equipment till it was crowded to capacity. Inquiry elicited 
the information that seven buffalo had been reported in the Cypress Hills. 
This was undoubtedly the last remnant of the vast herds which once roved 
the prairies of Western Canada, and, inspired by a desire to slaughter, at least 



122 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

year, evidently in the month of April, as he purchased it 
in May for his journey." 

The main part of the northern herd was to be found in 
the United States. Here the Indians of the Northwestern 
territories were waging a relentless war on the animals. 
Hornaday computes that the number of buffalo slaughtered 
annually by those tribes must have been about 375,000. 
The destruction of the northern herd began in earnest in 
1876 and became universal over the entire range four years 
later. By this time the annual export of robes from the 
buffalo country had diminished three-fourths. The con- 
struction of the Northern Pacific Railway hastened the ex- 
termination of the herd. White and Indian hunters killed 
as long as there were buffaloes to kill. The hunting season 
which began in 1882 and ended in February, 1883, com- 
pleted the annihilation of the great northern herd, and only 
a few thousand head were left broken in stragghng bands. 
The last shipment of robes was made from the Dakota 
Territory in 1884. In 1889 Hornaday, on the basis of all 
available data, estimated that the number of buffalo run- 
ning wild and unprotected, was 635 animals ! Was the de- 
struction of an animal ever so completely brought about? 
It furnishes what is undoubtedly the most striking and ap- 
palling example of the fate of an animal existing in appar- 
ently inexhaustible numbers when left exposed to unre- 
stricted slaughter, and should be a serious lesson to the 
people of the country for all time. That the buffalo had to 
go in the face of advancing civilization was inevitable. It 
occupied lands that were to furnish homes and occupation 

fifty, and probably one hundred, hunters immediately started for the town of 
Maple Creek, as being the nearest railway station on the Canadian Pacific — 
then the only railway in what is now the province of Saskatchewan. 

It is gratifying to note that, so far as known, these sportsmen were unsuc- 
cessful, and this small herd survived for several years. It is believed that it 
increased to twenty or twenty-five, but eventually it was exterminated by 
Indians. The fact that it increased at all indicates that, had it received 
adequate protection, ita descendants might be Uving to-day. — J. W. 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 123 

for millions of immigrants and that now produce so large 
a part of the world's staple crops. 

Time, however, will not efface the traces of the buffalo's 
occupation of the continent. They blazed the trails that 
later became important highways. As A. B. Hulbert, in his 
"Historic Highways of America," has pointed out, the buf- 
falo selected the route through the Alleghanies by which 
the white man entered and took possession of the Mississippi 
Valley. They found the best routes across the continent, 
and ''human intercourse will move constantly on paths 
first marked by the buffalo. It is interesting that he found 
the strategic passageways through the mountains; it is also 
interesting that the buffalo marked out the most practical 
paths between the heads of our rivers, paths that are 
closely followed today by the Pennsylvania, Baltimore and 
Ohio, Chesapeake and Ohio, Wabash and other great 
railroads." 

To-day the only wild buffalo exist in Canadian territory, 
and it will be of interest now to discuss this herd. 

The Wild ok Wood Bison 

In the area comprising a portion of northern Alberta 
and the Northwest Territories that is bounded on the north 
by Great Slave Lake, on the west by the Hay River, on the 
southeast by the Peace River, and on the east by the 
Slave River, there roams to-day the only wild remnant 
of the former millions of buffalo that inhabited this con- 
tinent. By their segregation they have formed a dis- 
tinct race or sub-species known as Bison bison atha- 
bascce Rhoads. This race is larger in size and darker in 
colour than the typical buffalo of the plains; also, its hair is 
said to be more dense and silky, and the horns are larger and 
more incurved (Plate XII). 

Samuel Hearne was the first traveller to record the occur- 



124 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

rence of these buffalo, and found them ''very plentiful" in 
the country east of Slave River. Mackenzie (1801) also 
records them in the region adjoining the river named after 
him to the west of the Great Slave Lake, and on the plains 
near Vermilion Falls. In 1808 Harmon found them abun- 
dant on either side of the Peace River near the Rocky 
Mountains. Richardson's observations in 1829 have already 
been quoted (p. 114). Other travellers referred to their 
abundance in this region in subsequent years, and E. W. 
Nelson's letter referring to their occurrence has been 
quoted (p. 115). John Macoun, in his ''Manitoba and the 
Great Northwest," refers to this herd as follows: "The wood 
buffalo, when I was in the Peace River in 1875, were confined 
to the country lying between the Athabaska and Peace 
Rivers north of latitude 57° 37', or chiefly in the Birch Hills. 
They were also said to be in some abundance on Hay River 
and on Salt River, a tributary of Slave River north of Peace 
River. The herds thirteen years ago were supposed to num- 
ber about one thousand all told. I believe many still exist 
as the Indians of that region eat fish, which are much easier 
procured than either buffalo or moose, and the country is 
much too difficult for white men." 

In an article in the Field (London) of November 10, 1888, 
Mr. Miller Christy (quoted by Hornaday) states: "The 
Hon. Dr. Schultz, in a recent debate on the Mackenzie River 
basin in the Canadian Senate, quoted Senator Hardisty of 
Edmonton, of the Hudson's Bay Company, to the effect 
that the buffalo still existed in the region in question. 'It 
was' he said, 'difficult to estimate how many; but probably 
five or six hundred still remain in scattered bands.' There 
had been no appreciable difference in their numbers, he 
thought, during the last fifteen years, as they could not 
be hunted on horseback, on account of the wooded character 
of the country, and were therefore very little molested. 
They are larger than the buffalo of the great plains, weighing 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 125 

at least 150 pounds more. They are also coarser haired 
and straighter horned." Doctor Schultz also quoted Hon. 
Frank Oliver of Edmonton, who recorded the wood buffalo 
as still existing in small numbers between the Lower Peace 
and Slave Rivers, extending westward from the latter to the 
Buffalo River in latitude 60°, and also between the Peace 
and Athabaska Rivers. Some buffalo meat was brought 
every winter to the Hudson's Bay Company's posts nearest 
the buffalo ranges. 

In 1888 W. Ogilvie obtained further information regard- 
ing these buffalo, and this is given in the Annual Report of 
the Department of the Interior for 1889. He estimated the 
number of animals to be about 180, and from information 
secured in 1891 the same observer thought that their numbers 
did not exceed 300 ^Annual Report, Department Interior, 
for 1892). 

Doctor Otto Klotz published in the Ottawa Naturalist 
for 1901 data furnished him by J. A. Macrae, Inspector of 
Agencies in the Athabaska region in 1900. At this time it 
was computed that the buffalo numbered from 500 to 575 
head. Mr. Macrae stated that ''some eight or nine were 
killed last winter, but as I tried and punished those who 
killed them it is thought that no more depredations will 
occur. I understand that there has been an increase since 
the animals were protected, of perhaps a couple of hundred, 
and it would appear to be only necessary to continue vigor- 
ous protective measures in order to perpetuate the herd." 

Fortunately, the Northwest Game Act was passed by 
the Dominion Parliament in 1906, and under this act a 
permanent close season for buffalo was provided for a 
number of years. 

In 1907 Inspector A. M. Jarvis of the R. N. W. M. 
Police was sent specially from Regina to the Athabaska 
region to ascertain the existing numbers and condition of 
the wood buffalo and to recommend means for their pro- 



126 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

tection. Accompanied by Ernest Thompson Seton and E. 
A. Preble, he visited the region west and southwest in June 
and July, 1907. In the region of Upper Salt River one herd 
of thirteen bison was seen, and a second herd of four bulls, 
one yearling, four little calves, three two-year-olds, and 
eight cows was observed a few miles further on. Mr. 
Seton photographed the first herd and one of his photographs 
is reproduced in his "The Arctic Prairies." In summing 
up the results of his investigation Inspector Jarvis, after re- 
marking that it would take from two to three months to 
make a complete investigation, gives the following conclu- 
sions: "That the buffalo are in danger of extermination not 
by wolves but by poachers. These poachers are all known 
and live at the village of Smith Landing in the summer time. 
They could easily be controlled by a local police patrol; 
without some protection the buffalo will not last five years 
longer. Therefore, I strongly recommend, as I did some 
time ago, that if it is the wish of the government to pro- 
tect the buffalo, resident guardians be placed on the 
grounds." * 

Inspector Jarvis further states: "In conclusion I would 
point out that the range of the buffalo herds is very limited; 
that it has certain natural boundaries; that the buffalo do 
not attempt to leave this area; that it is removed from any 
village or permanent habitation and that finally, it would 
he an efficient and easy measure of protection if the whole area 
in question were at once turned into a National Park. Animal 
life was not abundant. We saw no big game whatever and 
few signs of moose or bear." 

As a result of Major Jarvis's report the buffalo were pro- 
tected more stringently. A system of occasional patrols 
by selected non-commissioned officers and men of the Royal 

* For a detailed account of Inspector Jarvis's investigation the reader 
should consult the Annual Report Royal North West Mounted Police for 1907, 
pp. 122-129, 1909. 



PLATE XII 




Solitary bull on bison range, southwest of Fort Smith, Northern Alberta 




From photographs by Charles Cainsell. Courtesy of the Geological Survey 

Wallows of Wood Bison in Salt River region, Northern Alberta 
WOOD BISON 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 127 

Northwest Mounted Police into the buffalo country was in- 
augurated, and some resident hunters were engaged as 
special constables. 

In 1909 Corporal Mellor of the R. N. W. M. Police, en- 
gaged on a patrol into the buffalo country southwest of 
Smith Landing, ''found buffalo tracks very numerous at 
Beaver Lake and also on Big Salt Prairie, at Hay Lake and 
about Peace Pomt." In the district named, Corporal Mel- 
lor was able to get within five yards of a band of about 
seventy-five buffalo and obtained a good look at them. 
He says in his report: ''Owing to the fact that many of 
them were hidden from view in the bush, I was unable to 
count them correctly. Those nearest to view were nine 
large bulls, all splendid animals and rolling [inj fat. I saw 
only four calves in the band although there may have been 
more in the bush, but the guide, after examining the tracks, 
told me that there were no more. ..." 

In the summer of 1910 Sergeant Mellor, accompanied by 
Constable Johnson, ascended Big Buffalo River from Sul- 
phur Point on Great Slave Lake to Buffalo Lake. The main 
object was to determine as far as possible the northern 
boundary of the wood-bison habitat. As a result of this 
exploration Sergeant Mellor concludes that the wood bison 
never range as far as Buffalo Lake, nor across the Caribou 
Hills, neither do they reach Great Slave Lake at any point; 
on the other hand, they come close to Slave River from a 
point about fifty miles below Fort Smith, right up to Peace 
River, and also reach Peace River, at any rate as far as 
Jackfish River. Their habitat would therefore appear, he 
says, to be bounded on the west by the Caribou Mountains, 
on the south by Peace River, on the east by Slave River, 
and on the north by an imaginary hne drawn from Caribou 
Mountains on the west to Slave River on the east, touching 
the latter at about Point Ennuyeuse, and the former about 
fifty miles south by Buffalo Lake. The buffalo have, so far 



128 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

as he could make out from careful inquiry, never been seen 
many miles north of these low points. 

The attitude of the Indians towards the buffalo is indi- 
cated by the evidence of Inspector H. A. Conroy of the De- 
partment of Indian Affairs before the Senate committee 
in 1907. He says: ''You do not require to enforce the law 
to protect the buffalo. The Indians will not kill them. 
They want to preserve them as much as any one else. The 
Indians think if the buffalo are gone they will have nothing 
left. The Wood Crees are benefiting by the errors of the 
Indians south of the Saskatchewan. They know that the 
buffalo are all gone south of them and they want to protect 
the wood buffalo." Sergeant R. W. MacLeod of the 
R. N. W. M. Police, reporting on his long patrol from 
Fort Vermilion to the mouth of the Hay River on Great 
Slave Lake, in December, 1910, corroborated Mr. Conroy's 
statement. He states: ''The Indians I met were familiar 
with the regulations for the protection of the buffalo and 
protested strongly against a white man being permitted to 
kill any. The Indians told me the western range of the buf- 
falo is thirty-five to forty miles east of Buffalo Lake and 
there is certainly no feed for them in any part of the coun- 
try I passed over." 

In 1911 the Department of the Interior appointed Mr. 
G. A. Mulloy to investigate the condition and protection 
of the buffalo herds, and to obtain information in regard to 
them under the supervision of Mr. A. J. Bell, government 
agent at Fort Smith. 

Mr. Mulloy, who resigned in 1913, submitted several re- 
ports, the most comprehensive of which is contained in the 
report of the director of forestry for the year 1914 (Appen- 
dix No. 8, pp. 129-133). This report gives a good account 
of the regions occupied by the buffalo and their habits. In 
a letter of December 2, 1916, Mr. R. H. Campbell, director 
of forestry, under whose jurisdiction the supervision of these 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 129 

matters is placed, informed me tiiat ''there is nothing to 
indicate that the herd is at present suffering from lack of 
feed or from the depredations of either wolves or Indians. 
The possibiUty of a decrease in the buffalo range is, how- 
ever, a danger which has been pointed out by the govern- 
ment agent, and is receiving attention by the strengthening 
of the fire patrol in that vicinity." 

With a view to securing the latest information in regard 
to the wood bison and their present range, I suggested to 
Mr. Chas. Camsell, now Deputy Minister, Dept. of Mines, 
who was visiting that region of the northwest during the 
summer of 1916, for the purpose of supervising the work of 
several field parties working under his direction there, that 
it would be most desirable if he could visit the territory oc- 
cupied by the buffalo west and southwest of Fort Smith; 
the Commissioner of Dominion Parks was also anxious to 
have such information. Mr. Camsell was very fortunately 
able to make such a visit in September, 1916, and on his re- 
turn he communicated the following facts to me: Three 
journeys were made into the buffalo territory. The first 
was made from Fort Smith westward past the salt springs in 
Salt River, into the northern part of the buffalo range. A 
second journey was made from Fitzgerald or Smith Landing 
south westward for a distance of about thirty-five miles into 
the central part of the range. Earlier in the summer the 
range was entered from Peace Point on Peace River, for a 
distance of about ten miles. 

The wood bison are now divided into two separate bands, 
occupying two distinct ranges in northern Alberta and the 
adjacent portion of the Northwest Territories. There does 
not appear to be at present nor to have been within recent 
years any migration of the buffalo from one range to the 
other. The limits of the northern range are not as clearly 
outlined as those of the southern, but in general it extends 
north of the 60th parallel between Buffalo and Little Buffalo 



130 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Rivers, almost to the shores of Great Slave Lake, and cov- 
ers as large an area as the southern range if not larger. 
The southern range extends from Peace River northward 
to latitude 60° N., between longitudes 112° and 113°, and 
covers an area of about 2,000 square miles. The two 
ranges are separated by a belt of muskeg country 30 to 40 
miles wide, with a sHghtly settled area, adjoining the Salt 
River mission on the west. This tract of country prevents 
migration from one range to the other, except by way of the 
Salt Plain. In each range there are said to be about 1,000 
head of buffalo, though these numbers must be taken as 
being approximate, particularly with reference to the north- 
ern range, as, so far as known, no white man has trav- 
ersed it. 

Little is known of the northern range, which is much 
more inaccessible than the southern, although some idea of 
its general character was obtained by the journey inland 
from the south shore of Great Slave Lake into the northern 
border of the range. The timber, soil, and topography 
were found to be very similar to those of the southern range. 

The southern range is a flat or gently undulating plain, 
lying at an elevation of about 800 feet above sea-level. On 
the south its surface is only about 60 feet above the level 
of Peace River, and on the north it drops sharply away to 
an escarpment 150 to 200 feet high, down to the broad, 
level plain of the Slave River; ridges of sand, or boulders of 
limestone, which are rarely as much as 100 feet high, con- 
stitute the only irregularities of its surface, which is, how- 
ever, frequently pitted by immense sink-holes, due to the 
solution of the beds of gypsum which underUe the surface 
of the greater part of the range. There are very few lakes, 
and several of them contain water too alkaline to drink. 
Muskegs, which are not very numerous or of great extent, 
occur on the range. There are very few streams, the 
greater part of the drainage being apparently underground. 

The whole range is more or less timbered, interspersed 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 131 

with irregular open patches of prairie, a few hundred yards 
in length and breadth. On the northern range and in the 
valley of the Salt River there are areas of several square 
miles of prairie or meadow-land. All are grass-covered, 
except near the salt springs, where clay flats occur, and 
cover about thirty square miles of the salt plain. The 
timber is mainly white poplar, which often reaches two 
feet in diameter. On the sandy ridges jack-pines are found, 
and in the lower, wetter portions there are belts of good 
spruce, with trees up to two feet in diameter. Grass grows 
everywhere, both in the prairie openings and throughout 
the woods, affording excellent pasturage. A collection of 
grasses was made and identified by Mr. J. M. Macoun; 
among them were found the following: feather, slough, reed- 
canary, meadow, manna, bromus (introduced), blue-joint 
and squirrel-tail grasses, wheat and wild rye. Wild vetch, 
wild pea, and larkspur (Delphinium glaucum), which is 
poisonous to domestic cattle, were also found. 

From various sources Mr. Cam sell gathered the follow- 
ing information regarding the habits of the buffalo: In the 
southern range they spend the early part of the summer in 
the northern part of the range, near the Little Buffalo 
River. During the greater part of the year they occur in 
small bands of ten or twelve individuals, but in July and 
August, when the animals are mating, herds of twenty, 
thirty, or forty animals have been seen. An Indian in- 
"ormed Mr. Camsell that he had seen a single herd of about 
one hundred head. In August the buffalo of the southern 
herd begin to migrate southward, and they spend the win- 
ter not far north of Peace River, between Peace Point and 
Point Providence. In their migration from one part of the 
range to another they appear to follow the same route 
every year. This route is marked out by numerous deep 
trails through the woods, similar to the well-known trails 
in the prairies made by the plains buffalo. The route is 
also marked by many wallows on the sides of hills and in 



132 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 




RANGE OF WOOD BISON 
Limits of range .».i.j_ 



the open patches of prame. One place was found which 
the buffalo were accustomed to visit in order to lick the 
salty earth; the ground for five or six acres was completely 
cut up and covered with tracks, the whole area resembling 
the ground of a cattle-pen. A single bull was seen here 
(Plate XII), and Mr. Camsell approached within fifty feet 
of it. It showed little fear, and made no attempt to move 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 133 

off for several minutes, while photographs were taken of it. 
This incident would appear to indicate that the animals 
are not being molested by Indians or other hunters. On 
the same salt hck there were seen tracks of animals of all 
ages, and many of these were the tracks of yearlings and 
calves, indicatmg that there is an increase taking place in 
the numbers of the herd. Some of the tracks were those of 
very large animals. 

The general opinion appears to be that the Indians are 
now observing the law prohibiting the killing of the buffalo, 
and except perhaps in cases of necessity, where an Indian 
family is out of food, no buffalo have been killed, at least in 
recent years. 

Timber wolves would appear to be the only natural 
enemy of the buffalo, and in the various traverses made 
into the southern range ten or twelve old and new tracks 
of these animals were seen at various points. 

The other wild life found on the buffalo range consists 
of moose, woodland caribou, black bear, lynx, fox, beaver, 
marten, mink, otter, fisher, wolverene, coyote, and musk- 
rat. In the spring and fall ducks and geese are found. 
Spruce partridge, willow grouse, and sharp-tailed grouse 
occur all the year round and ptarmigan in the winter. 

From all the evidence he collected and from his observa- 
tions when in the buffalo territory, Mr. Camsell has no 
hesitation in saying that the buffalo are not only holding 
their own, but are increasing. If, therefore, a portion of 
their range could be made a national park, there is no 
reason why the wood bison should not only be saved from 
extermination, but there is every reason to believe that the 
surplus would migrate into the adjacent territory, which is 
unsuited to agriculture and therefore could be justifiably 
devoted to the preservation of the only examples of our 
largest and noblest native mammal now Uving in its original 
wild state. 



134 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

The Present State of the Buffalo in Canada 

From the latest reports, we are justified in concluding 
that the number of wild or wood bison in Canada is not 
less than 1,500 or 2,000 head, and is probably increasing. 
This has been brought about by the protection of this sole 
remaining wild herd by the government. If now we con- 
sider the present state of the plains buffalo in Canada, we 
shall find a condition of affairs of which every Canadian 
may justly feel proud, a condition that has resulted from an 
endeavour on the part of the government to prevent the 
extermination of this former monarch of the prairies. 

The present state of the buffalo will be all the more strik- 
ing if we first take into account the low ebb to which the 
numbers of the animals in North America had fallen. They 
reached their lowest level in 1889, when there were only 
1,091 buffalo then living, according to Hornaday's estimate. 
Of this total, 256 buffalo were in captivity, 200 were pro- 
tected by the United States Government in the Yellowstone 
Park, and 635 were running wild, of which number 550 
were estimated to be in the Athabaska region of our North- 
west Territories. Twenty years later, the same authority 
estimated the number of living buffalo in North America 
to be 2,047, and in 1912 there were computed to be 2,907 
by Mr. W. P. Wharton. 

In 1907 and 1909 the government purchased the well- 
known herd of buffalo, the largest on the continent, belong- 
ing to Michel Don Pablo, of Montana, consisting of 709 
head. For these animals a special buffalo park was created 
at Wainwright, in Alberta, on the main line of the Grand 
Trunk Pacific Railway, between Saskatoon and Edmon- 
ton. This park covers an area of about 160 square miles, 
the whole of which is enclosed in a special wire fence about 
76 miles in length and consists of land unsuited to agricul- 
ture on account of its sandy nature, but admirably suitable 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 135 

for buffalo, as it evidently formed a favourite place for 
buffalo in years gone by, as shown by the abundance of old 
wallows and buffalo trails. Several lakes, the largest of 
which is Jamieson Lake, about seven miles long, provide an 
ample water supply. The land is rolling, and includes scat- 
tered clumps of poplar and buffalo willow groves every- 
where. Under these eminently natural conditions the buf- 
falo have increased annually. In the spring of 1913 the 
numbers had increased to 1,188 head; a year later there 
were 1,453 buffalo. When I visited the buffalo park in 
1915 there were over 2,000 buffalo. In June, 1919, the 
herd had increased to 3,830 animals.* In other words, 
there are at the present time in the Buffalo Park at Wain- 
wright, Alta., under the care and protection of the Cana- 
dian Government, more buffalo than existed on the whole 
North American continent eight years ago, and by far 
the largest herd of buffalo in existence. In addition the 
goverrmaent maintains small herds of buffalo at Banff (8) 
and Elk Island Park (195). Altogether, there were 4,033 
buffalo under the protection of the Canadian Government 
in June, 1919. 

The successful protection of the buffalo at the Buffalo 
Park is due not only to the choice of a suitable natural 
range but to the care that has been exercised in looking 
after the herd. The park, in addition to being enclosed by 
a high, strong wire fence, is surrounded by wide fire-guards, 
which are ploughed around the entire park, both inside and 
outside the fence, to guard against prairie fires (Plate XIV). 
Many hundred tons of hay are cut each year and fed to the 
buffaloes in the winter, during which season they occupy a 
more restricted range. Great care is taken to prevent the 
introduction of contagious cattle diseases; for example, 
when the epidemic of foot-and-mouth disease broke out in 

* In December, 1920, there were about 5,000 buffalo in Wainwright Buffalo 
Park. It is proposed to slaughter 1,000 of them in 1921. — J. W. 



136 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

the Chicago stock-yards about two years ago the park 
was closed to visitors and the greatest precautions were 
taken. 

The question naturally arises: how are we to dispose of 
the surplus stock of buffaloes? With the present rate of 
increase the time will shortly come when the numbers will 
reach the capacity of the Buffalo Park. This opens an 
interesting field, which I will now consider. 

The Future of the Buffalo in Canada 

An obvious step to be taken with a view to disposing of 
the surplus buffaloes from the Buffalo Park is to establish 
small parks in other parts of the Prairie Provinces, where 
small herds could be maintained, which would be more 
readily accessible to the people who are interested in seeing 
and protecting these remnants of the former inhabitants of 
the prairies. Every large city should have its zoological 
park, the educational advantages of which have been so 
conclusively demonstrated in the older countries of Europe. 
It should be possible for cities starting or maintaining such 
parks to obtain buffaloes from the government. 

Domestication. — The greatest value of the buffalo, how- 
ever, lies in the possibility of its domestication. This may 
appear to be a novel idea, but I am convinced that its 
acceptance and adoption would result in inestimable benefit 
to the Prairie Provinces and the country as a whole. The 
greatest need in the Prairie Provinces is an increase in its 
beef-producing capacity. The buffalo is an animal which 
offers great possibilities, being pre-eminently suited to 
prairie conditions, and at the same time it produces a robe 
of no small commercial value. 

The needs of the West in the matter of suitable stock 
have been well stated by the late Mr. C. J. Jones, of Garden 
City, Kansas, whose experience with the buffalo earned for 



PLATE XIII 




From a phaldiiraph bij F. Brntlsbnw 




1 and 3. Buffalo in barnyard, Elk Island Park, Alljcrta, during winter, showing possi- 

bililies of domestication 
2. Antelopes: two males, two young (male and female) born in captivity, and adult 

female, in the private reserve of R. Lloyd, Davidson, Saskatchewan 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 137 

him the name of ''Buffalo Jones." In the Farmers Review 
of August 22, 1888, Mr. Jones stated the problem as fol- 
lows: 

(1) We want an animal that is hardy. 

(2) We want an animal with nerve and endurance. 

(3) We want an animal that faces the blizzards and endures the storms. 

(4) We want an animal that will rustle on the prairies and not yield 

to discouragement. 

(5) We want an animal that will fill the above bill and make good 

beef and plenty of it. 

''All the above points could easily be found in the buf- 
falo," continues Mr. Jones, "excepting the fifth, and even 
that is more filled as to the quality, but not in the quan- 
tity. Where is the 'old timer' who has not had a cut 
from the hump or the sirloin of a fat buffalo cow in the 
fall of the year, and where is the one who will not make 
an affidavit that it was the best meat he ever ate? Yes, 
the fat was very rich, equal to the marrow from the bone 
of domestic cattle." 

The buffalo is the best suited of all animals to withstand 
those conditions which stockmen have found most inimical 
to domestic cattle. It can weather our western storms and 
blizzards and can withstand the hunger and cold that 
would kill our domestic steers. As Hornaday says: "When 
natm-e placed the buffalo on the treeless and blizzard-swept 
plains, she left him well equipped to survive whatever nat- 
ural conditions he would have to encounter." Unhke do- 
mestic cattle, which usually drift before a storm and thus 
suffer an inevitable fate, the buffalo knows how to face 
the storm and endure it. And as regards its abihty to 
withstand such conditions we have seen how the buffalo 
formerly wintered in the middle prairie region. 

It is on these facts, therefore, that the claim for a consid- 
eration of the possibility of domesticating the buffalo in 



138 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

the Canadian West is based, and we cannot afford to dis- 
miss the claim lightly. I have already submitted this pro- 
posal to the Parks Branch of the Department of the Interior 
for consideration, in the firm belief that it affords a solution 
to the question of the disposal of the surplus stock of buffalo 
in the Buffalo Park. There are undoubtedly stockmen in 
the West who would be willing to enclose sufficient range 
unsuited to the production of wheat to permit the main- 
tenance of small herds of buffalo by way of preliminary 
experiment. And I am convinced that the results of such 
experiments would demonstrate that the domestication of 
the buffalo is practicable. Any one who has ridden over 
the Buffalo Park and mingled with the herds there must 
reahze that the buffalo are as manageable as the beef steers 
of the range if not more so. They are docile, and untracta- 
ble bulls can be readily dealt with (Plate XIII). 

Cross-Breeding with Domestic Cattle 

With a view to combining the excellent natural qualities 
of the buffalo, that make it so suited to Western conditions, 
with the beef-producing qualities of the best domestic 
breeds of cattle, efforts have been made from time to time 
to cross the buffalo with domestic cattle. The first records 
we have of such domestication by cross-breeding are those 
of Huguenot settlers in Virginia in 1701, and later in the 
eighteenth century buffaloes were domesticated and bred in 
captivity in that State. It is interesting to note that one 
of the most important of these earlier attempts to utilize 
the buffalo, which are recorded by Hornaday in his mono- 
graph, was undertaken by Mr. S. L. Bedson, of Stony 
Mountain, Manitoba. In 1877 Mr. Bedson purch.ased 
1 buffalo bull, 4 heifers, and 5 calves. By 1888 his herd, 
which was allowed to range the prairie at will, had increased 
to 83 head, consisting of 23 full-blooded bulls, 35 cows, 3 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 139 

half-breed cows, 5 half-breed bulls, and 17 calves, mixed 
and pure. In that year this herd was purchased for $50,000 
by Mr. C. J. Jones, of Kansas, who had already been 
courageously endeavouring to produce a cross-bred race. 
Hornaday quotes an interesting letter from Mr. Bedson, 
written in 1888, in which the latter gives his experience. 
The crossing was generally between the buffalo bull and 
an ordinary cow, with encouraging results and no greater 
losses than would be experienced in ranching with ordinary 
cattle. Buffalo cows and crosses dropped calves at as low 
a temperature as 20° below zero, and the calves were sturdy 
and healthy. Mr. Bedson states: '^The half-breed resulting 
from two crosses as above mentioned has been again crossed 
with the thoroughbred buffalo buU, producing a three- 
quarter breed animal closely resembling the buffalo, the 
head and robe being quite equal, if not superior. The half- 
breeds are very prohfic. The cows drop a caff annually. 
They are also very hardy indeed, as they take the instinct 
of the buffalo during bUzzards and storms, and do not 
drift Uke native cattle. They remain in our open prairies 
while the thermometer ranges from 30 to 40 degrees below 
zero, with Uttle or no food except what they rustle on the 
prairie and no shelter at all." After pointing out the ad- 
vantages of an animal that does not need care and shelter 
during the winter, he continues: "They are always in good 
order, and I consider the meat of the half-breed much pref- 
erable to domestic animals, while the robe is very fine 
indeed, the fur being evened up on the hind parts, the same 
as on the shoulders." When it was necessary through 
accident to slaughter certain of the half-breed animals, the 
dressed hides realized from $50 to $75 each, and a half- 
breed buffalo ox four years old weighed 1,280 pounds 
dressed beef. The three-quarter breed was an enormous 
animal, possessing an extra good robe; Mr. Bedson con- 
sidered them the coming cattle for range cattle in our 



140 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

northern climate. He believed that "a, cross with Gallo- 
ways would produce the handsomest robe ever handled, 
and make the best range cattle in the world." 

The experiments of Messrs. Bedson, Jones, Goodnight, 
and other workers conclusively demonstrated the following 
facts: That the buffalo bull crosses readily with the domes- 
tic cow, which produces a half-breed calf successfully, but 
the buffalo cow has not been known to produce a half- 
breed calf; that the progeny of the two species is fertile to 
any extent, yielding half-breeds, quarter, three-quarter 
breeds and so on; that the hybrids display all the desirable 
quaUties of the buffalo as regards ability to withstand ex- 
posure, etc., and, finally, that the buffalo will breed suc- 
cessfully and regularly in captivity. 

In order to determine to what extent practical use can 
be made of the crosses between the buffaloes and domestic 
cattle, the Dominion Department of Agriculture in 1915 
purchased a herd of "cattalos," as the hybrids are called, 
from the herd which was developed by the late Mossom 
Boyd on his Big Island stock farm at Bobcaygeon, On- 
tario. An account of the purchase of this herd and the 
character of the experimental work that is now bemg under- 
taken by the Division of Animal Husbandry of the Do- 
minion Experimental Farms, under the direction of Mr. 
Archibald, the director, was published in The Agricultural 
Gazette of Canada for March, 1916, from which the follow- 
ing statement is taken: 

The experiment carried on by the late Mossom Boyd was commenced 
in 1894 and continued until the time of his death, some two years ago. 
At the outset cows of various breeds and crosses were used. Some of 
these failed to produce and, after several years of experiment, all but 
grades of the Aberdeen-Angus and Hereford were discontinued. The 
resulting herd, therefore, possess the thick form of these beef breeds and 
a modification of the hump and depth of rib peculiar to the buffalo. 

In the early stages of the experiment, sterility was a dominating ob- 
stacle to progress, more particularly with the initial cross. With the 



PLATE XIV 




FENCE AROUND THE BUFFALO PARK, WAINWRIGIIT, ALBERTA 

This buffalo-proof fence is about nine foot Iilgh and seventy-two miles long; with 
the interior dividing fences there is a total of one liundred and seventy miles of 
fencing. Round the entire part fire guards twenty feet wide are plouglied inside 
and outside the fence, as shown in the photograph 




BUFFALO IN THE BUFFALO PARK, WAINWRIGHT, ALBERTA 

The Buffalo in the park separate into groups of varying sizes. The pliotograph shows 
a small group containing both young and old animals 



THE BUFFALO OR BISON 141 

securing of the true cattalo — the offspring of parents both of which pos- 
sess mixed blood— and tha elimination of shy breeders, Mr. Boyd devel- 
oped a herd of prolific animals. Abortions were frequent in the early 
crosses, but this tendency, also, has been overcome in the cattalo, which 
compares favourably with ordinary cattle in carrying the young to 
maturity. 

The success of Mr. Boyd's work was, no doubt, assisted by a knowledge 
of what others had accomplished. Knowing from the experience of others 
that initial difficulties incident to these crosses could with persistence be 
overcome, Mr. Boyd pursued his work with confidence and ultimately 
reached a place that began to show the value of the new breed. After 
his death, however, it was found that the estate could not further pursue 
the experiment. From time to time during recent years, requests have 
been made to the Department of Agriculture to undertake experiments 
with these crosses, and when it was learned that the herd of the late 
Mr. Boyd was hkely to be distributed and the value of his work lost, 
strong representations were made to the Minister of Agriculture to secure 
the herd of cattalos and to continue the experiment along truly scientific 
lines. 

The Honourable Mr. Burrell, therefore, had the herd thoroughly in- 
vestigated by officials of the Experimental Farms, the Live Stock and the 
Health of Animals branches, and on the results of their findings a selec- 
tion from the herd was made. The selection consisted of twenty head 
of the most promising individuals, made up of sixteen females and four 
males. The females range in age from one to nine years, possess from 
twenty-five to seventy-five per cent of buffalo blood, and weigh from five 
hundred to seventeen hundred pounds. The males range from four to 
nine years of age, carry from thirty-one to seventy-five per cent of buffalo 
blood, and weigh from one thousand to two thousand pounds. They are 
all regular breeders so far as they have been tried, and possess every in- 
dication of vigour. 

It has long been recognized that the buffalo possesses quaUties which 
would be of value if transmitted to beef-producing animals, more par- 
ticularly for ranging purposes for cold-ridden districts. From the ex- 
periments of Mr. Boyd and others it appears that the excellent rustling 
qualities of the buffalo are retained in the cattalo. During the blizzard 
conditions the cattalo like the buffalo faces the storm rather than drifts 
before it as is the tendency of domestic cattle. 

Furthermore, the cattalo shows excellent grazing qualities, maintain- 
ing a plump body even on scant pastures. They carry a further resem- 
blance to the buffalo in rising on their fore feet, which enables thena tg 
rise when in a weakened condition. 



142 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

The anatomy of the buffalo is favourable to the carrying of heavy 
carcasses of beef. They possess an additional pair of ribs as well as 
much longer spines of the vertebra. Although these extra ribs are not 
always perpetuated in the cattalo, the length of back persists. Along 
these spines very heavy muscles are carried, enabling the animal to carry 
an exceedingly high percentage of beef on the back, which is the most 
valuable part of the carcass. 

The value of the pelt of the cattalo is also a matter of importance. It 
possesses many of the qualities of that of the buffalo, but has a better 
colour, and more lustre, and the hair, which possesses considerable curl, 
is nearly as long and not matted. 

The cattalo wintered (1915-16) on a quarter-section of 
land at the Dominion Experimental Station at Scott, Sask. 
They were enclosed within an ordinary wire fence. Al- 
though they grazed to some extent, they were given a 
ration of straw, hay, green-cut oat sheaves, and a few 
roots. Subsequently the cattalo were moved from Scott to 
Wainwright, Alta., where they were placed in a special 
enclosure in the Buffalo Park. Up to the present time, 
however (1919), there have been practically no cattalo 
calves born. 

It is also proposed to carry on cross-breeding experiments 
with the yak, which is closely related to the bison and the 
true oxen. This work will include crosses between the 
yak and domestic cattle, and we would also suggest crosses 
between the bison and yak. 

It is greatly to be hoped that success will attend this 
experimental work, and that the results may be of such a 
character as to demonstrate the wisdom of the step taken 
by the Dominion Department of Agriculture in its effort 
to add to the stock-raising possibihties of our more northerly 
territories. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 
OF CANADA 

In another chapter the protection of the insectivorous 
and other small members of our bird fauna is considered. 
These birds have not received the attention of sportsmen, 
non-sportsmen (including the market hunter), and the 
framers of game legislation that has been given to the large 
class of birds included within the category of game birds, 
in which category, however, are included a number of birds, 
such as swans and cranes, that are no longer regarded as 
game birds. 

Within this important class of birds are included such 
migratory groups as the swans, geese, ducks, cranes, and 
shore birds, and the non-migratory species, such as grouse 
and quail. 

From the earliest historical times perhaps no country 
was inhabited during the spring, sunmier, and early fall by 
so large a number of swans, geese, and ducks as Canada, 
whose vast areas of water, in the form of marshes, sloughs, 
ponds, and lakes, furnished nesting-places and food for 
myriads of these water-fowl. The opening up and agri- 
cultural development of the country, the construction of 
railroads, and the birth and growth of towns and cities 
gradually brought about a rapid decrease in their number 
and drove many of them back into the undeveloped lands 
of the north, where at the present time by far the vast 
majority continue to breed. The causes which have mainly 
contributed to this decrease in the numbers of these migra- 
tory game birds are discussed elsewhere (page 172), and 

143 



144 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

it is the purpose of this chapter to describe as briefly as 
possible the present state and distribution of the chief rep- 
resentatives of this group. 

SWANS 

The Whistling Swan. — Formerly this species was abun- 
dant. It occurred throughout Canada, from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific coasts, and northward to the coasts and islands 
of the Arctic. But its large size, conspicuous character, and 
the market value of its skin have been responsible for its 
serious reduction. It breeds only in the far north, and 
winters in Louisiana, South Carolina, and Texas. During 
its migrations in the spring and fall it still occurs in large 
flocks in Ontario. Mr. P. A. Taverner informs me that he 
has seen flocks on Lake St. Clair, looking like rafts of ice 
in the distance, and composed of 200 to 500 birds. Small 
flocks pass over the Western Provinces, and are occasion- 
ally seen in British Columbia. 

Some idea of the former abundance and subsequent re- 
duction in numbers of this magnificent bird may be gained 
from the returns of the Hudson's Bay Company, as given 
by MacFarlane. He states that between 1853 and 1877 a 
total of 17,671 skins were sold. The number sold annually 
ranged from 1,312 in 1854 to 122 in 1877. ''From 1858 to 
1884, inclusive, Athabaska district turned out 2,705 swan 
skins, nearly all of them from Fort Chipewyan. Mac- 
kenzie River district, according to a statement in my pos- 
session, suppUed 2,500 skins from 1863 to 1883. From 
1862 to 1877, Fort Resolution, Great Slave Lake, contrib- 
uted 798 thereof. For 1889, Athabaska traded 33 skins as 
agamst 251 skms in 1853. In 1880 and 1890, Isle-a-la- 
Crosse, headquarters of English River district, sent out 
two skins for each outfit." Naturally, so conspicuous a 
bird, accustomed to alight in its migratory flights on ponds 
and lakes, offered a tempting and comparatively easy mark 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 145 

to the man with a gun. This was especially the case when 
they were overtaken by adverse weather. J. H. Fleming 
has described * a great destruction of swans that took place 
in March, 1908, at Niagara Falls. One hundred and twenty- 
eight birds were taken out of a flock that were swept over 
the falls. On March 14 a flock of three or four hundred 
swans was seen floating down the river with the current, 
till danger of being swept into the Canadian rapids caused 
it to rise and fly to its starting-point. Below Horseshoe 
Falls the water was breasted by a strugghng mass of swans. 
The majority of them were carried to the ice bridge and 
either cast up or ground against it by masses of floating 
ice. The destruction on this occasion was practically total. 

The Trumpeter Swan. — The breeding range of this species 
extends farther south than that of the whistling swan, and it 
is found in migration from Manitoba to British Columbia, f 
Like its near relative, it formerly wintered farther north 
than is the case to-day. The trumpeter has suffered more 
than the whistling swan on account of the greater prox- 
imity of its breeding-range to the regions in which settle- 
ment has taken place. 

The Migratory Birds Convention provides for a close 
season for ten years for swans in Canada and the United 
States, and it is to be hoped that the protection that is thus 
given to these fine birds in their northern breeding-grounds, 
in their wintering places in the South, and during their mi- 
gration will be a means of increasing their numbers. 

GEESE 

The Canada Goose. — What sound is a more welcome 
herald of spring than the honking of the geese, what sight 
is more pleasing than the A-shaped flocks of these geese 

* The Auk, pp. 306-308, 1908. 

t In 1920, trumpeter swans were discovered to be wintering in British 
Columbia and were " filmed." See Bulletin American Game Protective Associa- 
tion, April, 1921, p. 13. 



146 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

winging their way northward through the evening sky, 
when the stern winter is loosening its grip on land and 
water ? 

It breeds throughout the more northerly parts of Canada 
from northern Quebec to the Pacific, chiefly within the 
limits of tree growth, although it may be found nesting in 
Labrador and on the treeless shores of the Hudson Bay. 
Its breeding-range extends northward along the wooded 
basin of the Mackenzie River. Mr. P. A. Taverner informs 
me that the Canada goose still nests as far south as Red 
Deer, Alta., and until recently it nested at Shoal Lake, Man. 

The remarkable manner in which the Canada goose re- 
sponds to encouragement and protection has been strik- 
ingly demonstrated by Mr. Jack Miner of Kingsville, Essex 
County, Ontario, whose wild geese have made him famous 
throughout the United States and Canada. It has been 
my good fortune to visit Mr. Miner when his wild geese 
were enjoying his hospitality for a few weeks on their way 
north, and to hear from him the story of his successful ex- 
periment of securing the confidence of so shy a game-bird. 
After having made the reputation of being one of the great- 
est Nimrods in Ontario, Mr. Miner became converted to the 
idea of making friends of the creatures that formerly re- 
garded him as one of their most dangerous enemies. Ad- 
joining his brick-and-tile factory was a small pond, and in 
1904 he purchased seven wild geese, clipped their wings, 
and turned them out on the pond, which he enclosed, and 
which, it should be noted, is next to a much-travelled pubUc 
highway. No wild visitor came until 1908, then on April 2 
eleven geese stopped with him for a month on their way 
to their northern breeding-grounds. In 1909 thirty- two 
wild geese arrived on March 18; and on March 4, 1910, 
wild geese began to arrive from the South until, in two weeks, 
350 had arrived. Each year the geese were fed with corn 
on the cob. In the following year (1911) the geese began 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 147 

to arrive "in clouds" on February 20. Every year since 
they have visited Mr. Miner, not in hundreds but in thou- 
sands. On Good Friday, 1913, it was a very wmdy day 
and Lake Erie was extremely rough; the geese came to his 
farm in such numbers that they filled a five-acre field. 

For several weeks each year they enjoy his hospitality 
and consume annually several hundred dollars' worth of 
corn. For years Mr. Miner has borne the cost of feeding 
his wild visitors, and it is impossible to praise too highly 
the spirit that has prompted so great a financial sacrifice on 
the part of a lover of wild life, who can ill afford the ex- 
penditure involved in this unique experiment. To accom- 
modate the increasing number of his visitors Mr. Miner 
made new and enlarged ponds and added to his farm, the 
whole of which was devoted to and specially laid out for 
the protection of the geese, wild ducks, — which also visit 
him in large numbers, — quail, and insectivorous birds. So 
successful was the work that the Ontario government has 
created the Miner farm and adjacent farms a game sanc- 
tuary, which, each year, is visited by thousands of peo- 
ple, particularly in the spring, when the geese are staying 
there. 

One of the most wonderful and inspiring sights I have 
ever seen is the return of the flocks of geese during the early 
hours of sunrise on an April morning. While the heavens 
are still glowing with the rosy light of the rising sun, the 
geese begin to leave the water of Lake Erie, where they 
have spent the night, and in their characteristic A-shaped 
flocks, they head straight for the sanctuary, where they 
alight and spend the day, fed by the generous hand of their 
protector. Such pleasures cannot be purchased; they are 
the natural sequence to a genuine love of wild life and a 
patient winning of its confidence. 

Mr. Miner was not satisfied with demonstrating the re- 
sponse of the wild geese and ducks to his encouragement 



148 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

and protection, but desired to learn something of their 
movements when they left him, for considerable numbers 
also visited him in the fall on their southward journey. 
Accordingly he has made a practice of capturing a number 
of his feathered visitors and marking their legs with alu- 
minium tags, one of which is rep^-oduced (Plate XXII, 3, 4). 
A number of these leg-tags have been returned to him, 
some from the breeding-places of the geese in the north 
and others from their wintering places in the south. As a 
result of this work valuable information has been secured. 
From ten wild geese marked in 1915-1916, six tags were 
returned from the following places: In the north, where 
they were breeding: Moose Factory, Paint Hill, Watts 
Island, and Fort George, all on James Bay. In the south, 
where they winter: Nag Head and Currituck Sound, North 
Carolina. 

The work of Mr. Miner serves as an admirable object 
lesson in wild-life protection. There is no reason why his 
example should not be followed by others in all parts of 
Canada. The educational value of such protection cannot 
be overestimated, and the results that would accrue from a 
wider adoption of such a scheme are incalculable as a means 
of increasing the numbers of our migratory game and other 
birds. We fervently hope that his example will be followed 
throughout the Dominion. 

Hutchins's Goose. — This is a smaller Western variety of 
the Canada goose, with which it frequently associates. It is 
a common visitor in the spring and fall in the western prov- 
inces, from Manitoba to British Columbia. In Manitoba 
it has become fairly plentiful in recent years, and to some 
extent has taken the place of the Canada goose; they may 
be found on the stubble about the end of September. In 
British Columbia it is a common migrant in the spring and 
fall, and a number winter on the coast of British Columbia. 
It breeds abundantly on the delta of the Yukon River, on 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 149 

the Arctic coast and islands, and on the northwestern coast 
of Hudson Bay. 

Snow or White Goose. — This species, known as the ''white 
wavey," breeds in the Arctic from the mouth of the Mac- 
kenzie River eastward to Frankhn Bay. It is an uncom- 
mon migrant in the east, but in the west it winters on 
the coast of southern British Columbia, sometimes collect- 
ing in considerable flocks at the mouth of the Fraser River. 
The greater snow goose migrates along the Atlantic coast. 

Blue Goose. — The breeding-grounds of this more easterly 
species are unknown, but it is beheved to nest on the eastern 
shores of Hudson Bay or in northern Quebec (Ungavg). 

Brant. — Formerly the brant was one of the most abundant 
of the wild fowl that frequented our coasts, but its numbers 
have decreased very greatly. It is still an abundant mi- 
grant along the entire Atlantic coast, where it visits the 
coastal flats and estuaries. It breeds in the far north on 
the coast and islands of the Arctic Sea. 

The black brant is a Pacific coast species, and it winters 
along the coast of Vancouver Island and British Columbia. 
Its breeding-grounds are on the Arctic coast and islands 
from Point Barrow to Melville Island. 

DUCKS 

It is not possible within the limits of the description of 
our native wild fowl, nor is it desirable in an account of 
this nature, to discuss in detail the range and habits of all 
the numerous species of ducks that are native to Canada. 
Such details as the reader may wish to obtain may be found 
in the excellent "Catalogue of Canadian Birds," by John 
and James M. Macoun, in Forbush's "Game Birds, Wild 
Fowl and Shore Birds," and in the excellent work, "Game 
Birds of California," by Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer. Ref- 
erence may be made, however, to a number of the more 
common species of ducks. 



150 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Merganser. — The "saw-billed" ducks are well known and 
are generally regarded by fishermen as destroyers of fish. 
The red-breasted merganser nests on rivers and lakes 
throughout the wooded regions of Canada, from the Gulf 
and River St. Lawrence and northern Quebec to British Co- 
lumbia. The hooded merganser breeds from Ontario to 
British Columbia; the centre of its abundance appears to 
be in northern Manitoba. It is common in British Colum- 
bia and has been found wintering on Okanagan Lake. 

Mallard. — Forbush has truly called the mallard ''the 
wild duck of the world." It ie a cosmopolitan species, 
progenitor of our domestic breeds of ducks, a joy to the 
naturalist and sportsman, and in every way our best wild 
duck. Its chief breeding-grounds are the western provinces, 
the Northwest Territories, and British Columbia. It is 
not common east of the St. Lawrence, but it breeds in some 
of the marshes in western Ontario. West of the Great 
Lakes it may be found everywhere. Almost every little 
slough has its pair of mallards. But nowhere does it exist 
in the countless numbers that were formerly found when 
individual gunners killed them by the hundred per day, 
until they tired of the slaughter. They respond readily 
to protection and encouragement and are easily propagated. 

Black Duck. — In the Maritime Provinces, in Quebec, and 
in Ontario, this species takes the place of its near relative, 
the mallard. West of the Great Lakes it is not common. 

Gadwall. — In eastern Canada this species is not common; 
migrants are rarely seen on the Atlantic coast, but it breeds 
more commonly on the prairies, although it appears to be 
the rarest of our ducks, having a wide distribution. 

Baldpate or American Widgeon. — Like the gadwall, this 
fresh-water species is a valuable food duck, and consequently 
has suffered from excessive hunting. In eastern Canada it 
occurs as a migrant, becoming less common from Ontario 
eastward. It breeds abundantly in Manitoba and north- 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 151 

ward through the Northwest Territories; it is also com- 
mon in the Eraser Valley and the interior of British Colum- 
bia. 

Teal. — The green-winged teal is common from Manitoba 
to British Columbia, and breeds throughout that region 
and northward to the Arctic. The blue-winged teal breeds 
sparingly in eastern Canada; its chief breeding-range is 
from Manitoba to the Rocky Mountains and northward. 
It is a summer resident in the lower Fraser Valley, though 
uncommon in the rest of British Columbia. The teal are 
the smallest of our ducks, and, being swift fliers, are good 
sporting ducks. 

Shoveller or SpoonhilL — This handsome bird is distin- 
guished by its peculiar spoonlike bill, which enables it to 
sift the mud of the ponds which it frequents. As a migrant 
it is fairly conmion in Ontario and Quebec, but rarer in the 
Maritime Provinces. It is one of the commonest ducks of 
the prairies as far as the Rocky Mountains, where it finds the 
most suitable feeding-grounds. It is a conomon summer 
resident in British Columbia. 

Pintail. — Few of our native ducks excel this species in 
beauty of colouration, and certainly not in grace of out- 
line. While it breeds in some of the Ontario marshes and 
eastward to Nova Scotia in small numbers, the chief breed- 
ing-places of the pintail are in the Northwest Territories 
northward to the Arctic coast. 

Wood Duck. — Of all our wild ducks this species is by far 
the most gorgeous in its colouring; in fact, it is not excelled 
in beauty of colouration by any other wild duck in the 
world. Formerly it was abundant throughout the wooded 
regions of Canada, but so reduced have its numbers become 
that it has now been considered necessary to protect it by a 
permanent close season. It is still found in small numbers 
from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, but it is rare in the 
region west of Manitoba to the Coast Mountains of British 



152 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Columbia. Its peculiar habit of nesting in hollow trees and 
stumps above ground is well known. 

Redhead. — This species resembles somewhat its near rela- 
tive, the canvas-back duck. It is a large duck and favoured 
by sportsmen. In the Maritime Provinces it is a rare 
migrant, but more abundant in Ontario, where it breeds in 
certain of the marshes. It breeds commonly throughout the 
Prairie Provinces, where it frequents the abundant sloughs. 

Canvas-back Duck. — In the opinion of the epicures this 
is the king of the game-ducks. It is rare in the Maritime 
Provinces, but it is a more common migrant in Quebec and 
in Ontario. Its chief breeding-grounds are in the Prairie 
Provinces and the Northwest Territories. It also breeds in 
central British Columbia and winters on Okanagan Lake 
and around the mouth of the Fraser River and Victoria. 

Scaup or Bluehill. — This swift-flying duck offers excellent 
shooting to the sportsmen, and migrates southward later 
than many of the other ducks. It breeds throughout 
northwestern Canada and east of the Coast Mountains in 
British Columbia. It may be found in the winter in south- 
ern British Columbia and on the Pacific coast. 

Golden-eye or Whistler. — The latter name of this species is 
due to the whistling sound made by its wings in flight. 
Like the wood-duck, it nests in trees and stumps. It is a 
migrant in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces. 
Its chief breeding-places are the wooded regions of Mani- 
toba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, particularly along the 
lower portions of the Saskatchewan, Nelson, and Churchill 
Rivers. It also breeds abundantly along the Athabaska 
and Slave Rivers. 

Elder-Duck. — The sea is the natural home of these large 
ducks, that do not come within the category of game-birds. 
There are a number of species which make their home in 
the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Canada. On the Atlan- 
tic coast, the northern and American eider are the chief 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 153 

species. The king eider breeds on the Arctic and Labrador 
coasts. The Pacific eider breeds on the northern Pacific 
and Arctic coasts, being abundant around the mouth of the 
Mackenzie River (Plate XVI, 4). 

The great economic importance of the eider as the source 
of the valuable product, eider-down, a product of particular 
value in our northern latitudes, should need no emphasis. 
In the northern European countries of Norway and Iceland 
the birds are most zealously cared for by the inhabitants, 
who collect their down from the nests of the birds for com- 
mercial purposes. They realize fully the importance of 
conserving the birds, and encourage them by making nest- 
ing-places, so that they become semi-domesticated, and do 
not fear the intrusion of their protectors. During the early 
part of the nesting-season the down is taken, and also a 
proportion of the eggs, but sufficient eggs are left to enable 
the birds to rear the young required to keep up the num- 
bers of the birds. How widely different has been the 
treatment of the American eider on the coasts of Labrador, 
Newfoundland, and eastern Canada! Owing to the enor- 
mous destruction of the eggs, not to mention the adult 
birds, the eider is rapidly nearing the point of extermination 
on the Atlantic coast. Doctor Grenfell has described to 
me the ruthless destruction that takes place on the New- 
foundland and Labrador coasts. For years this relentless 
destruction has been carried on. It is the modern version 
of the story of the killing of the goose that laid the golden 
eggs. In the eider the inhabitants of our coastal lands, all 
too destitute of commercial resources, have a resource of 
inestimable value if the birds were protected to the same 
extent that the eider is protected in northern Europe. A 
valuable eider-down industry could be developed which 
would alleviate materially the conditions of life that are 
endured by the inhabitants of those inhospitable northern 
shores. 



154 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

A most admirable account of the serious reduction in 
the abundance of the eider, its protection and use in Nor- 
way and Iceland, and an appeal for its conservation on our 
Atlantic coast, is contained in Doctor Charles W. Town- 
send's paper, ''A Plea for the Conservation of the Eider," 
pubUshed in The Auk, vol. XXI, pp. 14-21, 1914, and in 
the Seventh Annual Report of the Commission of Conserva- 
tion, p. 250, 1916, to which the reader interested in this 
subject is referred. Under the Migratory Birds Conven- 
tion the eider is protected for a period of ten years. It 
is fervently hoped that Newfoundland will co-operate in 
protecting this bird, and that an eider-down industry may 
be developed on the coasts of Canada, Newfoundland, and 
Labrador. 

Scoters. — There are three species of scoters, which are 
black sea-ducks, native to Canada. As they are fish-eaters, 
their flesh is not generally esteemed, but they are eaten by 
the natives, and on the coast of British Columbia the In- 
dians kill for food the white-winged and surf scoters, which 
are locally known as "si wash ducks." During the migra- 
tion the American scoter occurs commonly on the Atlan- 
tic coast. 

CRANES 

In Canada we have three species of these birds, which 
have become so reduced in numbers as to necessitate the 
special protection they now receive under the Migratory 
Birds Convention. The whooping-crane is perhaps the 
most stately of all our large native birds, but at the present 
time it is threatened with extermination. Formerly it bred 
in all the large marshes on the prairies from Manitoba to 
the Rocky Mountains and northward. Thompson, in his 
"Birds of Manitoba" (1890), describes it as a tolerably 
common migrant and rare summer resident, and states 
that "this beautiful bird is common in the Touchwood 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 155 

Hills." But the advent of man and railroads spelled the 
destruction of so fine and conspicuous a bird, and its nest 
has not been found for a number of years. A few birds are 
occasionally seen in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and only 
in the region between the Quill Lakes and Last Mountain 
Lake in Saskatchewan do they appear to exist or breed in 
any numbers. The httle brown crane is often confused 
with the sandhill crane, which is the well-known resident 
brown crane of the prairies; the little brown crane, on the 
other hand, is only a migrant within civilization and nests 
in the far north. The sandhill crane is a rare migrant in 
Ontario, and it is not common in British Columbia. But 
in the Prairie Provinces and to the north the sandhill cranes 
are fairly common, and one's eyes may still be gladdened 
by the long lines of these birds sailing through the sky. It 
has been the custom to shoot these birds for food and to 
regard them in certain localities as injurious to grain crops. 

SHORE-BIRDS, OR WADERS 

The shore-birds, or waders, have a special interest to 
Canadians, as these birds, which migrate unusually long 
distances, in most cases breed entirely and, in other cases, 
principally within our territories, where suitable breeding- 
grounds exist on a large scale. Large numbers breed in or 
near Arctic Canada, and migrate to Central and South 
America. The knot, one of the sandpipers found on our 
Atlantic coast during the migration, breeds on the most 
northern islands of the Arctic, such as Victoria and Ellesmere 
Islands, and, after migration along the Atlantic coast, win- 
ters in Patagonia, a distance of over 9,000 miles separating 
its summer and winter abodes. 

Formerly shore-birds of all kinds occurred on our coasts 
and inland in countless numbers, but now some have prac- 
tically disappeared, and even the species that have man- 
aged to hold their own are far from abundant. No class of 



156 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

birds has suffered so serious a reduction in abundance, and 
no class stands in so great need of vigorous protective mea- 
sures. Their serious reduction in numbers has been brought 
about largely by the same causes that have affected our 
own game-birds, namely, the destruction of their former 
haunts by agricultural development and the extension of 
settlement both in their summer haunts in Canada and 
their winter habitat in such parts of South America as the 
Argentine, the increase in the number of gunners and the 
better faciUties that now exist for hunting. 

The only manner in which the influence of these adverse 
factors can be offset to an extent that will prevent reduc- 
tion in the numbers of shore-birds to the point of extermina- 
tion, is by stringent protection — short open seasons and 
small bag limits; and such protection must necessarily be of 
an international character. 

Under the Migratory Birds Convention, a close season 
for a period of five years is provided for all shore-birds, with 
the exception of the woodcock, the Wilson or jack snipe, 
the black-breasted and golden plover, and the greater and 
lesser yellowlegs. The curlews, sandpipers, other species 
of plover, and the rest of the shore-birds are now protected 
absolutely north of Mexico, and it is to be hoped that our 
South American bird-lovers will secure some measures of 
protection for all these birds in their winter homes in the 
South. 

Woodcock. — But a remnant of the former numbers of 
this bird now remains in eastern Canada, where it breeds in 
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and the more south- 
ern portions of Ontario. As it breeds on land unsuitable for 
agriculture, there is no reason why it should not increase in 
numbers with adequate protection and provide sport for 
those real sportsmen who prefer the difficult shot to the 
easy mark. 

Snipe. — The Wilson or jack snipe is considered by many 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 157 

to be the finest of game-birds; certainly no bird affords bet- 
ter sport. But so long as it was butchered in the Southern 
States during its winter sojourn, Uttle advantage was gained 
from the protection it received in Canada, where its chief 
breeding-grounds occur. The serious decrease in numbers 
has been chiefly due to excessive slaughter in the Gulf and 
Southern Atlantic States. We are informed that a single 
hunter in Louisiana killed 69,087 birds from 1867 to 1887, 
or an average of 3,500 snipe a winter. Cooke, in his valu- 
able article on ''Our Shorebirds and Their Future"* states: 
"Fortunately, the breeding grounds of most of the Wilson 
snipe are in Canada, where the birds are protected by law 
and custom throughout the nesting seasons. Moreover, 
their nesting sites are on land that will not for many years, 
possibly not for several generations, be used for agricultural 
purposes. Hence, there is provided in Canada an enor- 
mous favourable breeding area for these game birds, a 
region which formerly supported a snipe population many 
times more numerous than at present, and which will 
return to us in the United States each fall a liberal increase 
on whatever numbers we may allow to cross our northern 
border in spring." The Federal migratory bird regulations 
in the United States and the keener sense of responsibility 
in this phase of bird protection now displayed in the ad- 
ministration of game-laws in the States concerned, would 
indicate a more hopeful future for this excellent game- 
bird. 

In Canada the snipe breeds in all the provinces, and 
northward to the Mackenzie delta, and in Yukon and 
Alberta. 

The Plovers. — With the exception of the black-bellied and 
golden plovers, all the plovers, such as the killdeer, semi- 
palmated, and piping plovers, are protected for a period of 

* Year Book oj the United States Department of Agriculture for 1914, PP- 
275-294. 



158 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

five years under the Migratory Birds Convention. All the 
plovers are valuable to the agriculturalist, as they feed on 
grasshoppers, cutworms, white grubs, and other pests of 
our field and garden crops. The black-beUied plover is a 
fall migrant in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; in Quebec 
and Ontario it appears both in spring and fall, but in the 
Prairie Provinces it is a spring migrant. It breeds on the 
Arctic coast, and winters from CaUfornia southward to 
Brazil and Peru. 

The golden plover breeds along the Arctic coast from 
Alaska to the northwest coast of Hudson Bay, including the 
Barren Grounds. In the fall it travels southward to spend 
the winter chiefly in Brazil and Argentina. It is a common 
migrant in the fall in the eastern provinces, and in the 
Prairie Provinces it appears as a migrant in both spring 
and fall. Formerly the golden plover was perhaps the 
most abundant of all the shore-birds, vast flocks sweeping 
northward and southward across the continent in their 
long migratory j ourneys. But excessive hunting has reduced 
them to but a small fraction of their former numbers. 
Audubon estimated that in the annual slaughter that he 
witnessed in 1821, near New Orleans, about 48,000 plovers 
were killed in one day. 

Sandpipers. — This group includes about half of the shore- 
birds. They are chiefly small birds frequenting the edges 
of stream, river, lake, and sea. In spite of their small size 
they have been killed in thousands to satisfy the palates of 
the epicures. Now all species, with the exception of the 
greater and lesser yellowlegs, are protected for five years. 
Among the commoner species may be mentioned the fol- 
lowing : 

The Semipalmated Sandpiper. — This is a common migrant 
in the fall along the Atlantic coast and the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. In the western provinces they appear in the 
spring on their journey to their northern breeding-grounds, 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 159 

although they occur as both spring and fall migrants in 
British Columbia. 

The Least Sandpiper is a common migrant from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific. 

The Solitary Sandpiper is a summer resident in New- 
Brunswick, northern Quebec, the Prairie Provinces, and 
British Columbia. 

The Upland Plover or Bartramian Sandpiper is a bird of 
the open prairie, and is a common summer resident in the 
Prairie Provinces, where its chief breeding-centre is in 
western Manitoba and eastern Saskatchewan. Without the 
complete protection it is now afforded, it was doomed to 
complete extermination at no distant date, owing to the 
excessive destruction it has suffered at the hands of the 
market gunner. With adequate protection the melodious 
call of this bird, as it migrates northward in the spring, 
will continue to please the ears of bird-lovers. 

The Greater and Lesser Yellowlegs may be hunted during 
their fall migration. On the Atlantic coast it is a common 
migrant in spring and fall, and frequents the shores of 
tidal marshes. It is also a common migrant in Quebec, 
Ontario, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. In British Co- 
lumbia, it is an abundant resident in the winter along the 
coasts. The lesser yellowlegs is reported to be more abun- 
dant than the former species. It is found throughout the 
same range and breeds in large numbers in the Barren 
Grounds. 

The Curlews. — The history of the Eskimo curlew resem- 
bles somewhat that of the passenger pigeon. Formerly one 
of our most abundant shore-birds, and although fairly com- 
mon up to 1890, it is now almost extinct. Its disappearance 
has been chiefly due to unrestricted market hunting in the 
United States, particularly during its northward migration 
in the spring. It bred in the northern Barren Grounds, 
and in the fall travelled southward along the Labrador and 



160 CONSERVATION OP CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Atlantic coasts to Argentina and Patagonia, a distance of 
6,000 to 9,000 miles. In the spring it took a westerly course 
northward, and covered the prauie regions of the United 
States and Canada. It was in the Middle States, on the 
prairies of Texas and Kansas, that the ''dough birds," as 
they were called, met their fate. They congregated in such 
closely massed, large flocks that their wholesale slaughter 
by the market gunners was rendered easy. Forbush has 
given an excellent account of the history and the disappear- 
ance of this bird. He records the occurrence of immense 
flights of these birds on their southward journey; their 
dense flocks of millions would darken the sky, and the 
fishermen of Labrador and Newfoundland salted them 
down in barrels. All down the east coast the slaughter in 
the fall was terrific. In the spring they were killed in 
thousands in the Mississippi Valley, and were shipped into 
the Eastern market by the ton, in barrels. No bird could 
stand such slaughter, and in less then thirty years they 
were practically exterminated. It is a sad story of the 
exterminating effect of unrestricted destruction, and affords 
one of the most powerful object-lessons. 

The Long-billed Curlew is not common east of the prairies, 
but it is still fairly abundant in the southern portions of 
Saskatchewan and Alberta, where it breeds on the open 
prairie, and in British Columbia. But like other members 
of the family it is suffering from the inevitable extension of 
agriculture and the consequent reduction in its breeding- 
grounds. At the present time this species, the Hudsonian, 
and other curlews enjoy a permanent close season until 
1923, and, with adequate protection, it should be possible 
to prevent their extermination. 

BOB-WHITE, OR QUAIL 

In Canada the bob-white is confined to the extreme 
southern portion of southwestern Ontario, although its 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 161 

range formerly extended farther eastward.* As this re- 
gion forms the extreme northern limit of its range, it is 
with the greatest difficulty that this useful little bird is 
holding its own; in the spring of 1917 it was feared by many 
that the previous severe winter had destroyed the remnant 
of what was formerly a fairly abundant bird on the farms 
of southwestern Ontario. It is unfortunate that a bird so 
useful as the bob-white from the agricultural standpoint 
should be considered a game-bird. As a destroyer of insect 
pests it is one of the best friends the farmer has, and how 
much poorer the countryside is when it lacks the bob- 
white's cheery call. The bob-white should no longer be 
Usted as a game-bird, attractive as it is to sportsmen, but 
it should be given absolute protection on account of its 
value to agriculture. Under present conditions its continued 
existence will not be possible if it is hunted as game, and the 
sportsman who would be a party to its destruction is un- 
worthy of the name. 

GROUSE 

The different groups of grouse and ptarmigan are well 
represented in Canada. The following may be taken as 
representing the chief groups: 

Richardson^ s Grouse. — With the exception of the sage-hen 
this species and its related races are the largest of the grouse 
family. They may be found from the eastern foot-hills of 
the Rocky Mountains through the mountains to the Coast 
Mountains, and northward to the Yukon and the Mackenzie 
regions. 

Spruce Grouse. — The spruce forests from the Atlantic 
coast to the Yukon are the home of this species, which, in 
many parts of its range, has suffered on account of its com- 
parative tameness. 

* Quail have been successfully introduced into British Columbia, and are 
thriving in the sputhern part of Vancouver Island, 



162 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Ruffed Grouse. — This species, commonly known as the 
''partridge," offers excellent sport to the hunter. It ranges 
through the wooded regions of all the provinces from Prince 
Edward Island and Nova Scotia to British Columbia, and 
the ''drumming" of the male birds is a well-known sound 
of springtime, when the winter snows are melting. During 
the last few years there has been an alarming decrease in 
the numbers of this and other species of grouse, the causes 
of which will be discussed presently. With adequate pro- 
tection, however, when the numbers of grouse become seri- 
ously reduced, there is no reason to fear their disappearance, 
provided the protective regulations are adequately enforced, 
as the breeding range is so wide that the species have suf- 
ficient means for recuperation. 

Ptarmigan. — These hardy birds breed in our most north- 
erly latitudes, and are chiefly distinguished by the fact that 
they assume a plumage of pure white during the winter 
months. The willow ptarmigan breeds throughout northern 
Canada from the Labrador coast and northern Quebec to the 
Yukon. In the autumn they unite to form flocks of con- 
siderable size, and constitute an important article of food 
for the Indians and Eskimos and the few white inhabitants 
of the north during the winter. Above the timber-line in 
the Rocky Mountains and other high mountains in British 
Columbia is to be found the white-tailed ptarmigan. 

The Pinnated Grouse or Prairie Chicken, — This well-known 
game-bird of the prairie regions has followed the extension 
of the area devoted to grain-growing. It migrated into 
Canada from the south; the first specimens appear to have 
been killed in Manitoba about 1881, according to Thompson. 
By 1884 it had become tolerably conmion, and in 1886 it 
was abundant near Winnipeg, and is now spread over the 
entire prairie region of Canada. During recent years, how- 
ever, its numbers have been reduced to such an extent 
through natural causes and overshooting that the provin- 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 163 

cial governments of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta 
were compelled to establish an absolute close season. Com- 
plaints have been made that the use of poisoned grain in the 
Prairie Provinces in the destruction of gophers, or ground- 
squirrels, has been responsible for the deaths of prairie 
chicken. The investigations of Pierce and Clegg in Cali- 
fornia on quail, and of Bradshaw in Saskatchewan, have 
shown that under natural feeding conditions poisoned grain 
will not kill these birds. 

The Prairie Sharp-tailed Grouse. — Unlike its near relative, 
the pinnated grouse, this bird, which is commonly known 
as the ''prairie chicken" on our prairies, retreats before 
settlement. It is more usually found in deep woods and on 
uncultivated land overgrown with poplar, willow, or other 
low-growing trees, and it may be found throughout such 
wooded sections in the Prairie Provinces. The pinnated 
grouse keeps in the open country and frequents the willow 
scrub in the winter for protection. 

The Scarcity of Grouse. — During the last few years there 
has been a remarkable and almost alarming decrease in the 
number of grouse throughout Canada, from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific. The chief species, such as ruffed grouse or 
partridge, pinnated grouse or prairie chicken, and sharp- 
tailed grouse, were all affected, and in some sections of the 
country they disappeared almost completely. Many fac- 
tors contributed to their scarcity. Of the artificial factors 
there is no doubt that overshooting, particularly for the 
market, was responsible for the scarcity of birds; this is 
especially the case in the Prairie Provinces, where the in- 
creasing use of the automobile in hunting ''chickens" has 
increased the slaughter of birds to a serious degree. Natural 
factors have played an important role. In the case of all 
species, cold, wet springs have killed off the young birds. 
Many reports indicate that large numbers of ruffed grouse 
have been killed in the spring. They have been imprisoned 



164 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

under the snow, under which they are accustomed to shel- 
ter, but which proves to be a death-trap when alternate 
thawing and freezing causes the formation of an ice-crust. 
The most important and at the same time the most in- 
teresting cause of the scarcity of grouse during recent 
years has been the migration southward of certain large 
species of northern predatory birds such as the goshawk 
and great horned owl. This southern migration of these 
predatory birds was evidently due to the scarcity through- 
out the northern regions of the rabbit or varying hare, 
which experiences, as is well known, periodic cycles of abun- 
dance and scarcity, as I have described in another chapter 
(see p. 216). This relation between the scarcity of rabbits 
and the decrease in the numbers of grouse was indepen- 
dently studied by Mr. P. A. Taverner and myself in Canada, 
and Mr. John B. Burnham, president of the American Game 
Protective Association, who has published an interesting 
report on the subject.* Owing to the scarcity of rabbits, 
which normally constitute the chief food of such predatory 
birds as the goshawk and great horned owls, these birds mi- 
grated southward in large numbers and sought other prey. 
This migration brought these enemies of our game-birds 
in abnormal numbers into the natural haunts of the various 
grouse, and these birds suffered from the consequent ex- 
cessive slaughter. In cases of this kind the natural balance 
usually becomes restored in a few seasons, and, if close sea- 
sons are wisely fixed to counteract the baneful influences of 
natural factors over which we have no control, it is possible 
to prevent excessive reduction in numbers provided steps 
are taken at the same time to prevent overshooting. These 
species of grouse afford such excellent sport and recreative 
exercise that the greatest care should be taken in the fixing 
of open seasons, bag limits, and in regulating the methods 

* Bulletin of the American Game Protective Association, vol. VII, no. 1, 
pp. 4-8, January, 1918, 



GAME BIRDS AND LARGER NON-GAME BIRDS 165 

of hunting so that the conditions will be favourable to the 
birds. Too often the clamis of the hunter receive consid- 
eration at the expense of the quarry. True game protection 
consists in the consideration of the claims of the game, 
rather than those of the improvident pot-hunter, for no 
sportsman worthy of the name will consent to kill game at 
the risk of its continued existence. 

Sage Grouse or Sage Hen. — The range of the sage grouse, 
which is the largest of all our grouse, is very restricted in 
Canada. They may be found in small numbers in certain 
sections of southern Saskatchewan, and probably in southern 
British Columbia, near the international boundary, where 
the sage-brush {Artemisia) grows. The sage-brush country 
is their natural habitat, and, provided the permanent close 
season that they now enjoy is maintained, we may hope to 
continue to count this fine bird among our species of grouse. 

The foregoing review of our game-bird resources indicates 
the remarkable wealth of species that are included in our 
Canadian fauna. As I have pointed out, the abundance of 
many species must inevitably be adversely affected by the 
opening up and settlement of the country, which results in 
the destruction of their normal feeding and breeding-grounds. 
But, provided we legislate wisely, fixing open seasons and 
bag hmits that will prevent excessive killing, prohibit the 
sale of game-birds, and make every effort to counteract the 
adverse natural factors that are beyond human control, 
there is no reason why our game-birds should not continue 
to provide the future generations of Canadians with health- 
giving sport and recreation. 



CHAPTER VII 
BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 

Economic Value. — As agriculture is the basic industry of 
Canada, a thorough appreciation of the important relation 
that the protection of our insectivorous and other birds 
bears to agricultural production is essential to progress in 
this branch of national activity. While every farmer, fruit- 
grower, and forester knows to his cost the results of insect 
depredations, the non-agricultural section of our population, 
which depends on the products of the farm and forest, is by 
no means so fully aware of the immense losses that are caused 
by insect depredations. As a result of careful investigation 
we are able to determine the average loss on crops due to 
insect attacks. On the basis of this knowledge and taking 
the known yield of our different field crops, I have esti- 
mated that the loss due to insect depredations on the agri- 
cultural crops is not less than $125,000,000 annually. Birds 
constitute one of the chief natural factors tending to keep 
insects in check. If injurious insects were to increase with- 
out any natural control, there would be no vegetation left 
on this continent in a very short time. Therefore, the pro- 
tection of birds is essential from the point of national 
economy. 

Again, as the investigations of the Conamission of Con- 
servation have demonstrated, one of the most serious ad- 
verse factors affecting Canadian agriculture at the present 
time is the increasing prevalence of weeds. In the Prairie 
Provinces especially the weed problem is one of the most 
serious with which the farmers have to contend. And yet 
the value of certain species of birds as weed-destroyers is 
hardly realized by most agriculturists. 

IGG 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 167 

Few people realize the extent to which birds feed upon 
and destroy insects. Certain species feed upon them wholly, 
others during part of the spring and summer seasons. 
Those birds that are partially insectivorous generally de- 
stroy large quantities of insects during the period of the 
year when they are raising their young broods, and this 
period coincides with the period of the year when insects are 
most prevalent. Certain families of birds diligently search 
the surface of the ground for insects, others search the vege- 
tation, and others the air, and in this manner the insects 
on the earth, under the earth, on the plants, and in the air 
are ceaselessly hunted (Plate XV). Investigations con- 
ducted on this continent and in Europe have shown the 
extent to which insects go to make up the diets of birds. 
For example, it has been found that insects constitute 65 
per cent of the total yearly food of woodpeckers, 96 per 
cent of that of flycatchers, 95 per cent of that of wrens, 
and 89 per cent of that of phoebes. Birds require an enor- 
mous amount of food when they are growing and, owing to 
their active habits, in the adult state. A young crow will 
daily consume twice its weight in food. Nash found that a 
young robin weighing three ounces would eat five and one- 
half ounces of cutworms in a day. It has been calculated 
that a pair of tits and the young they rear will consume about 
170 pounds of insect food in a year. A blue tit will destroy 
six and one-half millions of insects in a year, and in bring- 
ing up a family of about twelve to sixteen young ones about 
24,000,000 insects would ultimately be accounted for. Grab, 
in Switzerland, states that three blue tits and three cole-tits 
consumed 8,000 to 9,000 insect eggs daily; three marsh-tits, 
one cole-tit, one long-tailed tit, and a golden-crested wren 
consumed 600 caterpillars in 100 minutes. Similar facts 
based on accurate observation and investigation might be 
quoted at great length to indicate the enormous destruction 
of insect life that is accompHshed by birds. 



168 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Feeding Habits of Chief Groups. — It will be of interest to 
review briefly the feeding habits of the chief groups of birds. 

Hawks and owls, which, as a group, are wrongly regarded 
as noxious birds, prey not only upon injurious small mam- 
mals, such as field-mice, gophers, and various rodents, but 
also consume injurious insects. The little sparrow-hawk 
lives largely upon grasshoppers and crickets, and such 
larger hawks as Swainson's hawk live almost exclusively 
upon such insects in the summer-time. The noxious hawks 
and owls (see p. 210), such as Cooper's hawk, the sharp- 
shinned hawk, and the great horned owl, form a very small 
proportion of the family. 

The thrush family, including such well-known birds as 
the robin and bluebird, are not only well known but useful 
birds. While robins are sometimes destructive to fruit, a 
large portion of the vegetable matter they consume consists 
of wild fruits; 330 stomachs contained 58 per cent vegetable 
matter, of which 47 per cent consisted of wild fruits, and 4 
per cent of cultivated fruits.* About two-thirds of the 
food of the bluebird consists of insects, such as caterpillars, 
grasshoppers, and beetles. 

The nuthatches, tits, and tree-creepers are among the most 
diligent of hunters after insects in all their stages, partic- 
ularly in the egg stage, and figures have already been given 
to indicate the enormous destruction of insect life they 
efifect. The warblers constitute a family of almost purely 
insectivorous birds that is well represented in Canada. 
WTierever insects may be found some species of warbler 
will also occur. Shyly they pursue their work of search- 
ing every leaf and twig of shrub or tree for eggs, larvae, or 
adults of destructive insects. We have found them to be 
not unimportant factors in the control of certain pests of 

* Except where it is otherwise stated, these analyses of stomach contents 
are taken from the publications of the Biological Survey of the U. S. De- 
partment of Agriculture. 



PLATE XV 




DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OP THE ECONOMIC STATUS OP 
SOME OF OUR COMMONER BIRDS 

Protection of trees and foliage: 1. Plioebe. 2. Vireo. 3. Warbler. 4. Chickadee. 

5. Nuthatch. 6. Downy woodpecker. 7. Flicker 
Aerial insect-destroyers: 8. Whippoorwill. 9. Swallows. 10. Kingbird. 11. Crows 

and Gulls 
Destroyers of noxious rodents: 12. Owl. 13. Hawk 
Destroyer of soil-inlfsting insects: 14. Robin 
Destroyers of weed seeils: 15. Chipping Sparrow and Juncos. IG. Goldfinch 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 169 

our forest and shade-trees. The vireos also are unrivalled 
as destroyers of insects which feed on the fohage of trees. 

The swallows and martins scour the air in the search of 
adult insects of all forms, which make up their entire diet. 

Our native sparrows, in which group we do not include 
the undesirable aUen house-sparrow, are among the greatest 
weed-destroying agencies, owing to their appetite for weed 
seeds. The song-sparrow is one of our most welcome spring 
arrivals. About three-fourths of its food consists of weed 
seeds and one-fourth of insects. Beetles, especially weevils, 
form the greater portion of the insect food. The chipping 
sparrow, whose confiding ways give it a warm place in our 
affection, is the most insectivorous of our sparrows. About 
42 per cent of its food consists of insects and spiders, and 
caterpillars make up the major portion of the insect food, 
especially when the young are being reared, when as many 
as seventeen feedings per hour, on an average, for a brood 
of four nestlings, have been recorded. The retiring and 
sombre junco or snowbird destroys insects and feeds on 
weed seeds. An examination of 500 stomachs gave 23 per 
cent animal food (caterpillars, bugs, and beetles), and 77 
per cent vegetable food, of which over 61 per cent consisted 
of weed seeds. In September the proportion of weed seeds 
may rise as high as 95 per cent of the food. 

Among the commoner weed seeds consumed by the spar- 
rows we find the seeds of bindweed, lamb's-quarters, rag- 
weed, amaranth, pigeon-grass, etc. Judd records the re- 
sult of the examination of over 4,000 stomachs of twenty 
species of sparrows. It was found that for the entire year 
weed seeds form more than half their food, and during the 
colder months of the year these seeds constitute about four- 
fifths of the food of many species. A single bird will often 
be found to have eaten 300 seeds of pigeon-grass, or 500 
seeds of lamb's-quarters or pigweed. Beal estimated that 
the tree-sparrow may consume one-quarter ounce of weed 



170 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

seed per day, and on that basis, in a state the size of Iowa, 
the species would consume about 800 tons of seeds annually. 

In passing, it should be pointed out, however, that the 
weed-destroying power of graminivorous birds may be ex- 
aggerated if the question is not investigated with great 
thoroughness, for while the powerful gizzards of some birds 
may grind up the hardest-coated seeds, in other cases seeds 
may be capable of germination after passing through the 
digestive tract, as CoUinge has shown in a number of cases 
in English birds. In such cases the birds would act as dis- 
seminators of weed seeds. Then again, in the case of in- 
sectivorous birds, besides destroying noxious insects, they 
will destroy various kinds of insects which are useful by 
reason of their parasitic habits upon noxious insects. These 
facts indicate that the question of the economic status of a 
bird is not always an easy matter to determine, and de- 
mands thorough investigation in each case. 

Furthermore, in certain instances useful birds eat grain 
or fruit. The horned larks occasionally eat grain, vegetable 
food constituting about 80 per cent of their total food. Six- 
sevenths of this total amount of vegetable food consists of 
the seeds of such weeds as foxtail, amaranth, ragweed, and 
bindweed. It surely is not too much to ask that, in view 
of the good they effect, a little injury shall be overlooked, 
especially as they make no charges for the good work they 
accomplish. It has sometimes seemed to me that in the 
case of those useful birds which sometimes take to fruit- 
eating, it is far cheaper to protect the fruit from the birds 
than from the insects. As insecticides birds are the cheapest 
and most generally efficient that can be found. 

The much-maligned crows are to no small extent friends 
of the farmer. In my investigations in England I found 
that at certain periods of the year they consumed large 
quantities of cutworms and root-feeding insect larvae. In 
the United States Beal has found that the crow deserves 
protection and not wholesale destruction. The crow is an 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 171 

experienced cutworm-hunter, and these birds have been 
observed in large flocks destroying cutworms in badly in- 
fected fields, which they carefully work over. When fields 
are ploughed they follow the plough and consume immense 
quantities of the destructive white grubs, one of our worst 
agricultural pests. Where, through their numbers, crows 
become destructive, it is necessary to take steos to reduce 
them. 

The woodpeckers are specially fitted by nature to destroy 
the wood-boring insects that so speedily kill our forest, 
shade, and orchard trees. The flicker feeds largely on ants; 
a single stomach has been found to contain over 5,000 ants. 
In another instance 28 white grubs were found in the 
stomach of one of these birds, which feed largely on the 
ground. The downy woodpecker feeds largely on the borers 
of trees, and is one of our most useful insectivorous birds. 
An examination of 723 stomachs showed that 76 per cent 
of the diet was animal food, consisting chiefly of insects. 
The yellow-bellied sapsucker is practically the only member 
of the woodpecker family that is injurious. Its fondness for 
the inner bark of trees leads it to girdle the trees with holes, 
the effect of which is either to kill the trees outright or 
seriously disfigure the timber. 

Gulls are constantly associated in the minds of most peo- 
ple with the sea or our large inland lakes, and their agri- 
cultural value is therefore largely obscured. Nevertheless 
there exist very extensive breeding-places of certain species 
inland, and such a species as Franklin's gull is a true inland 
species. Sometimes hundreds of ring-billed, herring, and 
Frankhn's gulls may be seen following the plough on the 
prairie and feeding on the white grubs, wireworms, and 
other insects and their larvae that are turned up. It has 
been found that about four-fifths of the food of the Frank- 
lin's gull consists of grasshoppers. 

From the foregoing review it is obvious that all the chief 
groups of birds contain representatives, or entirely consist 



172 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

of birds that are an actual necessity in the maintenance of 
as great a control as possible over the infinite variety of 
insect pests that attack the roots, stems, branches, and 
leaves of our cultivated plants and trees. And whatever 
may be the habitat of the insect it is usually found by some 
species of bird owing to the diversity of their feeding-habits. 

In view of the great economic value of our insectivorous 
birds from an agricultural standpoint, but not forgetting 
the aesthetic motives which surely need not be supported 
by argument, it is evident that the protection of these birds 
must form an important part in the maintenance or in- 
crease of our agricultural production. 

Experience has shown that not only directly by killing, but 
indirectly by the destruction of their natural haunts and 
breeding-places, man has intentionally and unintentionally 
been more anxious to destroy bird life than to protect it. 
Leaving aside the wilful destruction which birds have suf- 
fered by their misfortune in offering an easy and living tar- 
get, we find that the former haunts of our birds are obliter- 
ated by the advance of agriculture and settlement. Wood- 
lands and forest are cut down and give way to open fields; 
bird-haunted snake fences yield to wire. Near our cities 
subdivisions and lots wipe out the waste places and wooded 
haunts of birds. With their breeding and feeding places 
more and more reduced, and their lives frequently endan- 
gered, it is not surprising that birds are not more abundant, 
and that protection and encouragement are essential. 

Local Abundance of Birds. — Few people reahze the variety 
of birds that breed within a certain area, as so many species 
are shy in their habits. During the last few years the Bi- 
ological Survey of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture has been conducting a bird census of the United 
States. As illustrating the valuable and interesting data 
that such a census provides, the following are the results of 
an annual census taken since 1914 by Mr. Norman Criddle, 



PLATE XVI 






^^'f^'^^^'^'^^^'S^^' ^ "* 




Si 



-'^''^^ 






•m!^~ 



From a photograph by R. M. Anderson (1) 




From a pmntinghy C.War- From a phoiociraph by From a phoioqrnph by R. M. An- 
biirton Young {2) Bruce Rose (3) derson. Courtesy of the ecolog- 

ical Surrey (4) 




From a photograph. Courtesy of (!. Black (5) 

1. Arctic Fox 

2 Coyotes attacking sheep in Kamloops district of British Columbia 

3. Roclcy Mountain Goat, female with young 

4. Nest of Pacific Eider Duck {Sumateria v. -nigra) ; Dolphin and Union Strait, Arctic 

Ocean 

5. Ptaruxigan in the Yukon Territory 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 



173 



of the Entomological Branch, Department of Agriculture, 
Ottawa, in two areas near Aweme, in southern Manitoba: 

Area No. 1 consists of seventy-six acres, comprising chiefly 
unbroken prairie surrounded by low woods, chiefly aspen 
poplar, and scrub lands. It also includes farm-buildings and 
gardens containing ornamental shrubs and trees. The follow- 
ing is the result of the census of birds breeding in this area : 



Name of Bird 



1914 



1915 



1916 



Upland plover 

Canadian ruffed grouse 

Prairie sharp-tailed grouse 

Black-billed cuckoo 

Downy woodpecker 

American crow 

Whippoorwill 

Nighthawk 

Least flycatcher 

Kingbird 

American goldfinch 

Prairie horned lark 

Western meadow-lark 

Baltimore oriole 

Western vesper sparrow 

Chipping sparrow 

Clay-coloured sparrow 

Rose-breasted grosbeak 

Bam swallow 

Cedar-bird 

Red-eyed vireo 

Warbling vireo 

Orange-crowned warbler 

Yellow warbler 

Sprague's pipit 

Brown thrasher 

Catbird 

Western house-wren 

Long-tailed chickadee 

American robin 

Bluebird 

Total number of breeding pairs 
Total number species of birds . , 



Pairs 
1 
1 
1 

2 



1 
1 

2 
1 

10 
2 
1 
9 
2 
6 



58 
23 



Pairs 
1 

1 

2 



1 
1 
4 

2 

11 
1 
2 

14 
4 

10 
1 



Pairs 
1 



1 
1 
1 

1 
3 
1 
1 
12 
2 
1 
9 
5 
8 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
5 
9 

1 
1 



72 
21 



74 
27 



174 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 



Area No. 2 consists of twenty-six acres, comprising chiefly 
woodland. The trees are aspen and balsam, poplar, and, 
in parts, a dense growth of willow. The land is low-lying, 
but the only water available is in shallow wells and a horse- 
trough. 



Name of Bird 



1914 1915 1916 



American ruffed grouse 

Mourning dove 

Black-billed cuckoo 

Downy woodpecker 

Yellow-bellied sapsucker 

Northern flicker 

Whippoorwill 

Least flycatcher 

Western wood pewee 

Wood pewee 

Kingbird 

Bluejay 

American crow 

American goldfinch 

Pine siskin 

Baltimore oriole 

Western vesper-sparrow 

Chipping sparrow 

Clay-coloured sparrow 

Rose-breasted grosbeak 

Cedar-bird 

Red-eyed vireo 

Warbling vireo 

Black-and-white warbler 

Orange-crowned warbler 

Tennessee warbler 

Yellow warbler 

Oven-bird 

Mourning warbler 

Catbird 

Brown thrasher 

Western house-wren 

Long-tailed chickadee 

Willow thrush 

Olive-backed thrush 

American robin 

Total number of breeding pairs 
Total number species of birds . , 



Pairs 

11 

2 

2 

1 

4 
1 
3 
1 



Pairs 
13 
1 
4 
1 
1 
3 
2 
6 

i 
1 
1 

1 

2 
2 

2 
4 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 



65 

28 



72 
29 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 175 

The bird census conducted by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for the years 1914 and 1915 showed 
that on the farms of the northeastern States there was about 
one pair of birds to the acre, which is much less than it would 
be if the birds were given proper protection and encourage- 
ment. For example, it was found in 1915 that where the 
birds were protected on a farm of 40 acres near Middletown, 
Conn., containing 10 acres of ploughed land, 3 acres of wood- 
land, 5 acres of pasture, 12 acres of orchard, and 20 acres 
of meadow, this farm had a bird population of 165 pairs of 
native birds, 8 pairs of house-sparrows, and 15 pairs of star- 
lings, making a total of 188 pairs of breeding birds, or more 
than four times the average. 

Mr. W. E. Saunders has given an excellent example of 
the result of protecting and encouraging birds. The owner 
of about three-quarters of an acre of land surrounding a 
summer cottage in the Rideau Lakes, Ontario, decided to 
encourage the birds. When the experiment was com- 
menced there were five pairs of breeding birds in this area. 
In five years, by the provision of nesting-boxes and the 
elimination of cats, the bird population had increased to 
thirty-three pairs of breeding birds. In seventeen bird- 
boxes he had fifteen pairs of tree swallows, as well as two 
pairs of each of five other species, and one pair of each of 
five others near by. 

The conclusion reached from the United States bird census 
was that the birds are too few on the farms, and that they 
may be largely increased by protection and a little care in 
furnishing natural food and shelter. Such bird populations 
as 70 pairs of native birds of 31 species in 8 acres, at Olney, 
111.; 135 pairs of 24 species on 5 acres, at Wild Acre, Md.; 
193 pairs of 62 species on 44 acres, at Indianapolis, Ind.; 
and 189 pairs of 40 species, on 23 acres at Chevy Chase, 
Md., a half acre of which showed 20 pairs of 14 different 
species, all indicate how readily birds will respond to food, 
shelter, and protection. 



176 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

METHODS OF PROTECTION AND ENCOURAGEMENT 

In view of the economic value of insectivorous birds to 
the farmer, the fruit-grower, and to the owner of forest and 
shade-trees, or to the possessor of the smallest city and sub- 
urban garden, and as we now know how readily, and indeed 
rapidly, birds respond to encouragement and protection, 
the methods of encouraging and protecting these birds will 
now be considered. 

The chief means by which insectivorous birds may be 
encouraged and protected are the following: 

1. Provision of nesting facilities. 

2. Destruction of enemies, particularly the control of cats. 

3. Provision of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs. 

4. Provision of other forms of food, and especially of water. 

5. Bird sanctuaries. 

1. Provision of Nesting Facilities 

Owing to the destruction of natural nesting-places, which, 
as I have already shown, is unfortunately an accompani- 
ment of agricultural and municipal development, birds are 
driven far afield and are compelled to leave their former 
haunts. The total destruction of such natural breeding- 
places is not always necessary. In clearing land farmers 
would be well advised to leave, where it is possible, patches 
of low-growing trees or scrub, such as alders, willows, etc., 
particularly around small swampy water-holes and ponds, 
places that are much beloved by birds. Also in civic de- 
velopment and improvement an endeavour should be made 
to leave in the open spaces, which are essential to civic im- 
provement, remnants of the former shrub and tree growth, 
until they can be replaced by what may be considered to 
be more ornamental substitutes. I shall discuss later the 
establishment of bird sanctuaries in and near cities. 

For birds which nest on or near the ground, such as cer- 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 177 

tain of the native sparrows, piles of brushwood or logs 
should be left in sheltered places where they need not prove 
an eyesore, and they could be covered with vines. Piled 
logs not only serve as nesting-places but as shelters in the 
inclement weather that often occurs in the spring after the 
return of the earlier spring migrants. 

Nesting-boxes or Bird-houses. — One of the most important 
methods of providing nesting-places is by the distribution 
of nesting-boxes or bird-houses. In certain European coun- 
tries the provision of nesting-boxes for birds constitutes a 
recognized adjunct of forest protection, and such artificial 
nesting-sites are distributed by the thousand in forests 
owned by the state and private individuals. The cutting 
out of hollow and rotten trees which follows proper forestry 
management renders such a procedure necessary as a means 
of replacing the natural nesting-places so destroyed. 

The greatest exponent of the practice of bird-protection 
was, undoubtedly, the late Baron von Berlepsch, and to 
him we are indebted for the splendid example he has given 
at Seebach, in Germany. His ideas have been adopted by 
various states in Germany and in countries where the pro- 
tection of birds and the provision of nesting-boxes constitute 
an important and necessary adjunct of forestry methods. 
An instance, given by Baron von Berlepsch, of the practical 
value of bird-encouragement, may be quoted. The Hainich 
wood, south of Eisenach, which covers several square miles, 
was stripped entirely bare in the spring of 1905 by the cater- 
pillars of the oak leaf-roller {Tortrix viridiana). The wood 
of Baron von Berlepsch, in which there had long been nest- 
ing-boxes, of which there are now more than 2,000, was un- 
touched. It actually stood out among the remaining woods 
Uke a green oasis. At a distance of a little more than a 
quarter of a mile farther, the first traces of the plague were 
apparent, and at the same distance farther on still it was in 
full force. It was plain proof of the distance the tits and 



178 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

their companions had gone during the winter and after 
their breeding- time. Similar observations were made dur- 
ing a plague of the same insect {Tortrix viridiana) in the 
grand duchy of Hesse, where the protection of birds has 
been carried on in a sensible and energetic fashion for over 
ten years. Of 9,300 boxes hung up by the government in 
the state and communal woods of the grand duchy of 
Hesse, 70 to 80 per cent were occupied in the first year, and 
in 1907 all were inhabited. On and near Baron von Ber- 
lepsch's Seebach estate, 90 per cent of 2,000 nest-boxes in 
one wood were occupied, and nearly all of 500 and 2,100 in 
other localities. In Hungary similar measures are taken, 
largely owing to the admirable work of Otto Hermann, one 
of the foremost European advocates of bird-protection. 

Some years ago, when investigating the depredations of 
the larch sawfly (Nematus erichsonii) in the English Lake 
District, I was impressed with the value of birds as natural 
means of control, and, as birds in the worst-infested district, 
namely, Thirlmere, were not so abundant as they should 
have been, it was recommended that they should be pro- 
tected and encouraged by means of nesting-boxes. The 
corporation of the city of Manchester owns Thirlmere, this 
lake being their water supply, and they distributed nesting- 
boxes of the pattern which I devised and which is illustrated 
herewith (Fig. IV). The advantage of this box was that it 
could be made out of the slabs or rejected outer portions of 
the lumber bearing the bark. Three equal lengths of the 
slab are nailed together to form three sides of a long box, 
the outside of which, bearing the bark, was round and the 
inside square. The fourth side is made of a flat piece of 
wood forming the back of the box; this piece is longer than 
the other sides, and projects above and below the box, 
thus providing means of attaching the box to the tree. 
The top and bottom of the box may be made of slab 
wood. Several holes should be bored in the bottom, which 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 179 

is nailed on, to keep the nest dry. The top is hinged to the 
back-board, and when in use is fastened down by means 
of a screw, which permits the Hd to be opened for the pur- 





^ 



5- 





Pio. IV— CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS OF A BIRD-HOUSE DESIGNED 
BY THE AUTHOR TO BE MADE FROM SLAB WOOD, USUALLY A 
WASTE PRODUCT FROM SAWMILLS 

The size given is suitable for a bluebird, but the dimensions may be changed in 
accordance with the table on page 180 

3. Back view 



1. Cover 

2. Front of box 



6. Complete house 



4. Section of box 



pose of cleaning out the old nests. By so utilizing waste 
lumber these boxes were made very cheaply at the sawmill. 
A boy could readily make similar boxes. Fig. IV (5) shows 
the box complete. In the first year (1908) 60 boxes were 
distributed, and 31 per cent were occupied. The number 



180 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

of boxes was increased yearly until, in 1911, there were 347 
boxes, of which 66 per cent were occupied.* I am informed 
that in 1913, 75 per cent of the boxes were occupied. 

The nesting-box that I have described above can be 
made in different sizes to suit the various classes of birds 
that it is desired to encourage. The following dimensions 
are modified from Farmers' Bulletin No. 609 of the United 
States Department of Agriculture: 





Inside 
Dimen- 
sions of 

Cavity 


Depth of 
Cavity 


Entrance 
Above 
Floor 


Diameter 

of 
Entrance 


Height 
of Box 
Above 
Ground 


Wrens and chickadees . . 

Bluebird and tree swal- 
low 

Flicker 

Downy woodpecker .... 

Screech owl and spar- 
row hawk 


Inches 
4x4 

5x5 

7x7 
4x4 

8x8 


Inches 

7 to 9 

6 to 8 
16 to 18 

8 to 10 

12 to 15 


Inches 
8 

6 
16 

8 

12 


Inches 

VA 

3 


Feet 
6 to 12 

5 to 15 

6 to 20 
6 to 20 

10 to 30 



Nesting-boxes for certain birds that do not nest in cavities 
may be made with open tops, and placed in sheltered places, 
such as under the eaves of buildings or verandas. The 
sizes for such boxes are as follows: 



Robin Sides 6 inches by 8 inches; depth 4 inches 

Phoebe and barn swallow " 6 " "6 " " 3 " 

In the aforementioned Farmers' Bulletin designs of differ- 
ent kinds of nesting-boxes are given. 

In many parts of the country, houses for purple martins 
may be seen erected on poles. Such houses are also used 
by tree swallows. They are generally built on the colony 
plan, as these birds are gregarious in their habits, and their 

* For further particulars and illustrations see my memoir on "The Large 
Larch Sawfly," Bull. 10, Second Series, Experimental Farms, Dept. Agricul- 
ture, Canada, 1912, 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 181 

construction and size is a matter upon which taste can be 
exercised if the following directions are followed: 

If possible they should contain not less than ten to twelve 
rooms. The individual chambers should measure six inches 
square and high, and they should be completely separated 
from the adjoining chambers. The entrance holes should 
measure two and one-half inches in diameter, and the 
centre of the hole should be slightly above the centre of the 
outer side of the chamber. 

2. The Destruction of Enemies 

The greatest enemy to bird life in more thickly populated 
districts is the domestic cat. After many years' experience 
I have arrived at the conclusion which all lovers of bird life 
reach, namely, that no matter how carefully a cat is cared 
for by its owners, its bird hunting and destrojdng instinct 
is not greatly diminished. Naturally, stray cats will destroy 
a large number of birds, and such garden-loving species as 
robins and yellow warblers fall an easy prey. The destruc- 
tive character of the cat has been well described by E. H. 
Forbush in his book, "Useful Birds and Their Protection," 
and in other pubhcations. The following evidence is given 
in his book: 

Mr. William Brewster tells of an acquaintance in Maine who said that 
his cat killed about fifty birds a year. Mr. A. C, Dike wrote of a cat 
owned by a family and well cared for. They watched it through one 
season and found that it killed fifty-eight birds, including the young in 
five nests. 

Nearly a hundred correspondents scattered through all the counties of 
the state (Massachusetts) report that the cat is one of the greatest enemies 
of birds. The reports that have come in of the torturing and killing of 
birds by cats are absolutely sickening. The number of birds killed by 
them in this state is appalling. 

Some cat lovers believe that each eat kills on the average not more 
than ten birds a year; but I have learned of two instances where more 
than that number were killed in a single day, and another where seven 



182 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

were killed. If we assume, however, that the average cat on the farm 
kills but ten birds per year and that there is one cat to every farm in 
Massachusetts, we have in round numbers, seventy thousand cats killing 
seven hundred thousand birds annually. 

The average taken by Forbush, of ten birds to each cat, 
is a low one, as every observer will agree, and his figures for 
a single State, however striking they may appear, are only 
too near the truth. If we are to preserve our birds we must 
take steps to destroy all stray cats, and to reduce the num- 
ber of cats to a minimum. Birds form a natural part of 
our wild life, cats do not; they form a destructive factor 
that has been introduced into the natural order of things 
by man, and in a state of nature an abundance of cats and 
birds is an impossibility. 

In city parks and other places in which it is desired to 
encourage and protect birds, it is necessary that care should 
be exercised to prevent the undue multiphcation of red 
squirrels, which frequently prove to be serious destroyers of 
bird Hfe. Further, they often appropriate nesting-boxes 
and turn them into storage places for their food supplies. 

In the neighbourhood of dwelhngs the house-sparrow is 
generally an enemy to our native birds. In many places 
these sparrows have driven away the useful insectivorous 
birds, particularly those of the swallow tribe. While they 
feed, to some extent, upon insects during the season when 
they are raising their broods of young, and on the seeds of 
weeds when other food is not available, they are, on the 
whole, very undesirable, and every effort should be made 
to destroy them. They are seriously destructive to young 
plants, especially garden vegetables such as peas; in coun- 
try districts they destroy and spoil large quantities of grain, 
and their habits are such as to earn for them the title of 
''avian rats." The best methods of destruction are shoot- 
ing, the taking of their nests and eggs, and the use of poisoned 
grain. 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 183 

Although, as I have already pointed out, the majority of 
hawks are useful birds, several species are destructive to 
bird Hfe and should be dealt with accordingly. Among the 
destructive species are the following: Cooper's hawk, the 
sharp-shinned hawk, the pigeon hawk, and the duck hawk. 
Fortunately these species are not very abundant. 

3. Provision of Fruit-bearing Trees and Shrubs 

The vegetable food of many of our insectivorous birds 
under natural conditions consists largely of wild fruits and 
berries. Such birds as robins and bluebirds eat a greater 
proportion of animal food during the spring and summer, 
but as insects become less abundant and wild fruits ripen 
in the fall, vegetable food appears to predominate. When 
man changes the natural environment by planting culti- 
vated fruits, such as cherries, currants, raspberries, and 
strawberries, birds such as robins are apt to prefer the larger 
and more succulent cultivated varieties to the wild ones. 
When this happens the owner of the fruit is apt to forget 
the benefits that the birds have conferred upon him earlier 
in the year by destroying the insect enemies of his crops, and 
is apt to deal with them accordingly. There are, however, 
alternative methods of preventing such damage. I have 
already pointed out that it is cheaper to protect cultivated 
fruit trees against the attacks of useful birds such as robins, 
than to permit insects to increase uncontrolled by birds. 
Another method of reducing the damage done by birds to 
cultivated fruits is to provide them with wild fruits as a 
small return for their services in destroying injurious insects. 

The planting of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs in gardens 
and parks and bird sanctuaries is a very effectual method 
of attracting birds to a place. Lovers of birds and gardens, 
when planting gardens and parks, should, therefore, give 
preference to those species of trees and shrubs that bear 



184 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

fruits or seeds that birds prefer. It is not a difficult matter, 
and the results will astonish the owner, for he will have 
birds in his garden at a time when animal food is scarce, 
and when his less provident neighbour will be complaining 
of the scarcity of bird life. It is especially desirable that 
those persons, such as commissioners of parks, who are en- 
trusted with the planting of city parks, should endeavour 
to plant as many shrubs and trees that bear attractive fruits 
as possible. 

Lists of fruit-bearing shrubs and trees which are known 
to be attractive to birds have been compiled and published* 
by W. L. McAtee, of the Biological Survey of the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

With the assistance of Mr. W. T. Macoun, Dominion 
horticulturist, the accompanying list of attractive trees, 
shrubs, and some herbaceous plants suited to Canadian 
conditions, has been prepared. In presenting this list 
Mr. Macoun states: ''Various considerations have influ- 
enced choice, as ornamental value, earliness, lateness or 
length of fruiting season, and especial availability of plants 
through ordinary channels of trade." 

LIST OF TREES AND SHRUBS BEARING FRUITS 
ATTRACTIVE TO BIRDS 

Species Suitable to Eastern Canada 

Juniper Juniperus communis. 

Red cedar Juniperus virginiana. 

Bayberry Myrica carolinensis. 

Hackberry Celtis occidentalis. 

White mulberry Morus alba. 

Pokeweed Phytolacca decandra. 

Barberry Berberis vulgaris. 

* "How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States," by W. L. McAtee, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 621, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1915. 

"How to Attract Birds in Northwestern United States," by W. L. McAtee, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 760, U. S. Dept. Agric. 1916. 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 185 

Spice bush Benzoin oestivale. 

Wild gooseberry Ribes Cynosbaii. 

Red currant Ribes vulgare. 

Asiatic currant Ribes fasciculatum. 

Flowering crab-apple Pyrus floribunda. 

Choke cherry Pyrus melanocarpa. 

Mountain ash Pyrus americana. 

Juneberry Amelanchier canadensis. 

Asiatic service-tree Amelanchier asialica. 

Cockspur thorn Cratcegv^ Crus-galli. 

Wild strawberry Fragaria americana. 

Wild blackberry Rubus allegheniensis. 

Dwarf raspberry Rubus triflorus. 

Wild blackberry Rubv^ canadensis. 

Pasture rose Rosa humilis. 

Wild black cherry Prunv^ serotina. 

Beach plum Prunus maritima. 

Sand cherry Prunus pumila. 

Crowberry Empetrum nigrum. 

Fragrant sumac Rhus canadensis. 

Mountain holly Nemophanthu^ mucronata. 

Bittersweet Celastrus scandens. 

Buckthorn Rhamnus cathartica. 

Virginia creeper P seder a quinquejolia. 

Summer grajie Vitis cestivalis. 

Frost grape Vitis vulpina. 

Leatherwood Dirca palustris. 

Wild pepper Daphne Mezereum. 

Oleaster Eloeagnu^ angustifolia. 

Buffalo berry Shepherdia canadensis. 

Wild sarsaparilla Aralia nudicaulis. 

Asiatic sarsaparilla Acanthopanax sessiliflorum. 

Bunchberry Cornus canadensis. 

Flowering dogwood Cornus florida. 

Red osier Cornus stolonifera. 

Alternate-leaved dogwood Cornus alternifolia. 

Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens. 

Bearberry Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi. 

Creeping snowberry Chiogenes hispidula. 

Black huckleberry Gaylussacia baccata. 

Early sweet blueberry Vaccinium pennsylvanicum. 



186 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Swamp blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum. 

Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpum. 

Partridgeberry Mitchella repens. 

Fly honeysuckle Lonicera ccerulea. 

Tartarian honeysuckle Lonicera tatarica. 

Snowberry Symphoricarpos racemosus. 

Coralberry Symphoricarpos vulgaris. 

High-bush cranberry Viburnum Opulus. 

Arrowwood Viburnum acerifolium. 

Sheepberry Viburnum Lentago. 

Common elder Sambux:us canadensis. 

Red-berried elder Sambucv^ racemosa. 

Species Only Suitable to Southwestern Ontario 

In addition to the species suitable to eastern Canada, the following 
species may be grown in southwestern Ontario: 

Green briar Smilax rotundifolia. 

Red mulberry Morus rubra. 

Sassafras Sassafras variifclium. 

Washington thorn Cratoegus phcenopyrum. 

English thorn Cratoegus Oxyacantha. 

Smooth sumac Rhus glabra. 

Holly Ilex opaca. 

Inkberry or black alder Ilex verticillata. 

Japanese creeper Ampelopsis tricuspidata. 

Sour gum Nyssa sylvaiica. 

Persimmon Diospyros virginiana. 

Privet Liguslrum vulgare. 

Purple berry » Callicarpa purpurea. 

Species Suitable to the Prairie Provinces 

Juneberry or saskatoon berry Amelanchier spicata. 

False indigo Amorpha fruticosa. 

Japanese barberry Berberis Thunbergii. 

Siberian pea-tree Caragana arboresceus. 

Hackberry Celtis occidentalis. 

Western clematis Clematis ligusticifolia. 

Erect clematis Clematis recta. 

Cotoneasters (several species) Cotoneaster spp. 

Hawthorn (several species) Crataegus spp. 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 187 

Wolf willow or silver berry Eloeagnus argentea. 

Honeysuckle bush (several species) Lonicera. 

Ninebark Physocarpus opulifoliiis. 

Pin cherry Prunus pennsylvanica. 

Sand cherry Prunus pumila. 

Western wild cherry Prunus demissa. 

Siberian crab Pyrus baccata. 

Mountain ash Pyrus americana. 

Buckthorn Rhamnus cathartica. 

Mountain currant Ribes alpinum. 

Wild black currant Ribes floridum. 

Missouri currant Ribes aureum. 

Wild rose Rosa blanda. 

Wild raspberry (several species) Rubus spp. 

Elders (several species) Sambucus spp. 

Buffalo berry Shepherdia argentea. 

Snowberry Symphoricarpos racemosus. 

Nannyberry Viburnum Lentago. 

High-bush cranberry Viburnum Opulus. 

Wild grape Vitis vulpina. 

Species Suitable to Southern British Columbia 

Irish yew Taxus hibernica. 

Western juniper Juniperus occidentalis. 

Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum. 

Russian mulberry Morus alba var. tatarica. 

Nandina Nandina domestica. 

Barberry Berberis vulgaris. 

Oregon grape Berberis nervosa. 

Currant* Ribes divaricatum. 

Currantf Ribes irriguum. 

Currant* Ribes sanguineum. 

Currantf Ribes aureum. 

Salmon-berry* Rubu^ spectabilis. 

Purple raspberry Rubus leucodermis. 

Evergreen blackberry Rubus laciniatus. 

Sweetbriar Rosa rubiginosa. 

Rose Rosa gymnocarpa. 

Rose Rosa nutkana. 

* West of Cascade Mountains only. 
t East of Cascade Mountains only. 



188 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Rose Rosa pisocarpa. 

Strawberry* Fragaria chiloensis. 

Strawberry t Fragaria platypetala. 

Service berry Amelanchier florida. 

Thornapple Cratoegus Douglasii. 

Firethorn Pyracantha cocdnea. 

Firethorn Cotoneaster Simonsii. 

Crab apple* Pyrns diversifolia. 

Mountain ash Pyrus sitchensis. 

Wild cherry -. Prunus emarginata. 

Choke cherry Prunus demissa. 

Sumac* Rhus glabra. 

Holly Ilex Aquifolium. 

Burning-bush* Evonymics occidentalis. 

Cascara Rhamnus Purshiana. 

Virginia creeper Psedera quinquefolia. 

Japanese ivy Ampelopsis tricuspidata. 

Buffalo berry Shepherdia canadensis. 

Devil's-elub* Fatsia horrida. 

Red osier Cornus stolonifera. 

Dogwood* Cornus occidentalis. 

Dogwood* Cornus Nuttallii. 

Bunchberry Cornus canadensis. 

Arbutus* Arbutus Menziesii. 

Manzanita* Arctostaphylos tomentosa. 

Manzanita* Arctostaphylos Manzanita. 

Kinnikinnick Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi. 

Salal* Gaultheria Shallon. 

Blueberry* Vaccinium ovatum. 

Blueberry Vaccinium ccespitosum. 

Red huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium. 

Cranberry Oxycoccv^ intermedium. 

Snowberry Symphoricarpos racemosus. 

Honeysuckle Lonicera involucrata. 

Honeysuckle Lonicera utahensis. 

Elderberry* Samhucus glaum. 

Elderberry Sambucus callicarpa. 

Pimbina Viburnum paucifiorum. 

Black haw* Viburnum ellipticum. 

* West of Cascade Mountains only, 
t East of Cascade Mountains only. 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 189 

4. The Provision of Other Forms of Food and 
OF Water 

In some parts of Canada, such as Nova Scotia, the south- 
ern portions of Ontario and British Columbia, certain species 
of birds remain throughout the entire winter. In such re- 
gions it is especially desirable that steps should be taken and 
provision made for feeding the birds during the winter 
months, particularly during inclement weather, when they 
would experience difficulties in obtaining their natural food. 
Winter feeding is an important part of bird protection and 
encouragement in such regions, and there are many ways of 
providing such food. 

The winter food usually comprises animal food, such as 
suet and other forms of fat, meaty bones and cooked meat, 
and meal worms. Fat- or oil-containing seeds such as sun- 
flower-seeds and nuts, and various grains and seeds such 
as buckwheat, pumpkin and squash seeds, bird-seed, hemp- 
seed, wheat, millet, cracked corn or oats may be used. 
Cracked dog-biscuits, crackers, crumbs and bread and 
chopped apple are all useful. 

These winter foods are usually placed in some form of 
feeding-device. The feeding-shelter may be small or large, 
but it should be so constructed as to enable birds to reach 
the food easily and to feed comfortably during stormy 
weather; at the same time they should be protected against 
such enemies as cats. Food-trays partially enclosed by 
glass sides may be attached to windows, or stand near a 
window. One of the most useful types of feeding-shelters is 
the Hessian food-shelter, which contains two trays — a lower 
unprotected tray and a tray placed under the roof and 
sheltered by glass sides. Such feeding-devices are easily 
made, or they can be purchased from dealers in such sup- 
plies. A simple feeding-device can be made by suspending 
a cocoanut which has a hole cut in one end; this is very 
attractive to such birds as tits. 



190 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

The provision of water is very important. During the 
hot days of summer, birds require water for drinking and 
bathing purposes, and a bird fountain or bath in a garden 
will always insure the presence of numerous birds. No gar- 
den should be considered complete without a supply of 
water for the birds. This may take the form of a small 
fountain, a natural or artificial water-hole, or a pebble-lined 
tin or concrete bath. Very artistic concrete or artificial- 
stone bird-baths on pedestals are now made and sold by 
dealers, and such baths can be made by any one with a 
little ingenuity. 

5. Bird Sanctuaries 

A bird sanctuary is an area of land, or of land and water, 
in which birds are rigorously protected and permitted to live 
undisturbed. Such a sanctuary may be a tract of wood- 
land or prairie, a marsh, the banks of a river, a sea-girt 
island or cliffs. A bird sanctuary may be created in or near 
a town or city with as great advantage to bird protection 
as a sanctuary in a more remote region. Moreover, there 
can be no greater expression of the bird-loving tendencies 
of a community than such an area in which birds are pro- 
tected. 

I would strongly recommend local organizations and pub- 
lic bodies to adopt and carry out the following scheme as a 
first step: The absolute protection of birds in public parks 
and cemeteries in cities, towns, and villages should be se- 
cured by the co-operation of the local civic authorities, and 
such areas should be publicly declared to be bird sanctuaries. 
At the same time, bird-house competitions should be organ- 
ized, and a proportion of the bird-houses so made by the 
school-children should be distributed in the civic bird sanc- 
tuaries, and thus the children would have that personal in- 
terest in the work which tends to secure success. Further, 
the assistance of the local horticultural societies should be 



PLATE XVII 




WILD DUCKS ON UNITED STATES ( iOVEKxNINIENT RESERVE 




PORTION OF EXHIBITION OF BIRD-HOUSES MADE BY THE BOYS IN 
ONE OF THE OTTAWA PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN A COMPETITION ORGAN- 
IZED CY THE OTTAWA HUINIANE SOCIETY IN 1917 



BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 191 

enlisted, and they should be asked to help the civic or other 
authorities in the work of planting suitable fruit-bearing 
and other shrubs and trees attractive to birds in the local 
sanctuaries; or these associations could make themselve? 
entirely responsible for such work. Prominent citizens 
should then be encouraged to present bird fountains and 
baths, to be placed in the bird sanctuaries. Each year, 
preferably in the spring, a local ''bird day" might be in- 
stituted. On that day the schools would devote special 
attention to the subject of birds and bird protection, and 
means could be taken to enlist the interest of the general 
pubhc. By these and other means that might be devised, 
every section of the community could be called upon to 
take a personal interest in the protection and encourage- 
ment of the birds in the district, and the work would ex- 
press the community spirit. I cannot conceive of any prac- 
tical measure that would have a greater effect in stimulating 
pubhc interest in this subject, and the value of such work 
throughout Canada as a whole would be inestimable. Where 
interest is kindled in the minds of young and old on the 
subject of birds it increases with time, and few subjects have 
a wider appeal, or elicit to a greater extent that sympathy 
with and admiration for our wild hfe. 

In the city of Ottawa bird sanctuaries have been estab- 
lished through the efforts of the Ottawa Field-NaturaUsts' 
Club and the Ottawa Humane Society. The Ottawa Im- 
provement Commission consented to make the beautiful 
natural tract of land, Rockcliffe Park, a bird sanctuary, and 
made and distributed nesting-boxes throughout the park. 
The Dominion Department of Agriculture distributed nest- 
ing-boxes throughout the grounds of the Central Experi- 
mental Farm and the Botanical Garden, all of which con- 
stitute a most admirable refuge for many species of birds 
which are not usually seen within the limits of a city. 
Through the personal interest of H. R. H. the Duke of 



192 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Connaught nesting-boxes have been distributed through 
the grounds of Government House, and the owners of large 
gardens have taken similar steps. Other Canadian cities 
should follow the example of Ottawa in this respect. On 
the author's recommendation the Board of Park Commis- 
sioners of Vancouver, B. C, have decided to establish a 
bird sanctuary in Stanley Park, which is admirably suited 
to such a purpose. Few cities in Canada are without areas 
that would serve as excellent bird sanctuaries. 

Passing from what might be termed civic bird sanctuaries 
to larger areas of rural territory, we find that both the 
Dominion and provincial governments have taken steps to 
set aside suitable areas as bird sanctuaries for the protection 
of wild fowl and other forms of bird life, and these sanc- 
tuaries or refuges are considered in another chapter. 

Bird sanctuaries constitute the surest means of protect- 
ing our insectivorous and other birds by preventing their 
destruction and ultimate extermination. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE AND THE CONTROL 
OF PREDATORY ANIMALS 

Any rational system of wild-life protection must take 
into account the control of the predatory species of mam- 
mals and birds. And while the complete extermination of 
such predatory species is not possible, desirable, or neces- 
sary, a degree of control must be exercised to prevent such 
an increase in numbers as would affect the abundance of 
the non-predatory species. In the treatment of predatory 
animals it is necessary to determine whether the species 
concerned are responsible for more harm than good in a 
particular region. 

The creation on any extensive scale of wild life reserves 
will inevitably result in an increase within, and the attrac- 
tion to such reserves of predatory mammals such as wolves 
and coyotes, and of birds such as eagles, great horned owls, 
and such noxious hawks as the goshawk, Cooper's, and sharp- 
shinned hawks, owing to the fact that these reserves will 
not only contain a larger number of the animals and their 
young which predatory animals destroy, but as the reserves 
afford sanctuary to such animals they will tend to contain 
a much greater abundance of wild Ufe than neighbouring 
territory. Following the general rule in nature that pred- 
atory species collect where the species on which they sub- 
sist occur in unusual abundance, an increase in game and 
other animals will bring about an increase in their enemies, 
especially when the latter are harassed elsewhere. 

Wolves. — The large gray or timber wolves, varying in 
colour from white to black, which range from Quebec to 

193 



194 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

British Columbia and northward to the Yukon and the 
Arctic coast, are the most serious natural enemies of all 
members of the deer tribe, not to mention their destruction 
of domestic stock. In the more northerly forested regions 
of Quebec and Ontario they have been reported as being 
very destructive to deer, and their attacks on moose and 
caribou have had a marked effect on the abundance of these 
animals in certain regions. In northern British Columbia 
and the Yukon they have also been reported to be so abun- 
dant as to destroy mountain sheep in considerable numbers. 
Coyote. — The coyote or prairie wolf is to be found through- 
out the western provinces, from Manitoba to British Co- 
lumbia, and northward to the Northwest Territories and 
the Yukon. Unlike the gray or timber wolf, which has re- 
treated to a great extent from the open prairies, although it 
ranges the Barren Grounds of the north and now is to be 
found chiefly in the wooded sections of the country, the 
coyote prefers the open plains, but it may be found also in 
wooded regions throughout its range. Coyotes are more 
gregarious in habit than wolves, and co-operate in hunting. 
There is no doubt that they destroy not only young deer, 
mountain sheep, and antelope, but also large numbers of 
game-birds, such as geese, ducks, etc. The agricultural de- 
velopment of the country does not tend to a diminution in 
their numbers, as in the case of wolves, but appears rather 
to encourage an increase, with the result that they become a 
serious menace to farmers through their attacks on sheep 
and poultry; the aspect of their economic importance will 
be considered presently. In spite of their destruction of 
game animals and birds, and of live stock, they also prey 
on rodents that are injurious to agricultural interests, such 
as rabbits, gophers, and mice. Where coyotes decrease in 
number by natural causes or hunting, the numbers of go- 
phers usually increase. This fact is important, and means 
that an active campaign against gophers must accompany 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 195 

any campaign against coyotes. Such injurious insects as 
grasshoppers, crickets, June-bugs (white grubs), etc., are 
also eaten by coyotes. Nevertheless it would appear that 
the damage they inflict far outweighs the benefits they ac- 
comphsh. Peculiarly enough they are also fond of fruit 
and consume wild fruits and berries. 

Cougar. — The cougar or puma, also known as the moun- 
tain lion or panther, is the largest of the cat tribe in North 
America. In Canada it is to be found in the Rocky Moun- 
tains and westward to Vancouver Island, on which it ap- 
pears to be most common. Large specimens may measure 
7 to 8 feet in length, and weigh over 200 pounds. They 
prey upon every kind of game, but are specially destructive 
to mountain sheep, goat, and deer, and a large male cougar 
will kill a horse, cow, moose, or wapiti. Deer form their 
chief prey. When cougars occur in numbers the deer and 
mountain sheep invariably decrease in numbers; for exam- 
ple, I am informed that the decrease in deer and sheep 
in the Lillooet region of British Columbia, which formerly 
abounded in such game, has been largely due to the depre- 
dations of cougars, which are increasing in that region, al- 
though a steady decrease in cougars in British Columbia as 
a whole is reported. 

The Wolf and Coyote Problem as Affecting 
Live-Stock Interests 

From an economic point of view the destruction of live 
stock, especially sheep, by wolves, and particularly by 
coyotes, constitutes a more serious problem than the de- 
struction of wild life, and it is fitting that in such a presen- 
tation as I am making of the economic aspect of our native 
predatory animals we should consider the relation of these 
animals to our agricultural interests. 

British Columbia. — As a result of an extensive investiga- 
tion that I have made into the losses inflicted by these 



196 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

animals in the live-stock interests, it would appear that the 
problem is most serious in British Columbia, which contains 
very extensive areas admirably suited to sheep-raising, 
particularly in the central Dry Belt region. For much of 
the information I am about to give concerning conditions 
in British Columbia, I am indebted to Mr. C. E. Lawrence, 
Secretary-Treasurer of the Interior of British Columbia 
Wool Growers Association, who writes: 

The matter is an increasingly serious one, and all our efforts to increase 
production of wool and mutton seem to be frustrated by this abominable 
pest. For ranchers to lose one-third of their lambs is not uncommon — ■ 
quite a number in this district (Kamloops) have sold their breeding ewes 
to the butcher to save them from the coyotes. 

Mr. Thomas P. Mackenzie, provincial grazing commis- 
sioner for British Columbia, states that records show the 
presence in British Columbia of not more than 50,000 sheep, 
and that with properly organized range and a scientific ro- 
tation system of grazing he sees no reason why British Co- 
lumbia should not graze at least 2,000,000 sheep. 

The following reports indicate the serious nature of the 
losses due to coyotes in the Dry Belt region of British Co- 
lumbia: 

F. F. Wilkinson, Monte Creek: *'My losses were so severe that I have 
sold my sheep to save what were left from going the way of the others." 

Lawrence Bros., Heffley Creek: "After doing our best to combat the 
total loss of our choice breeding flock of Oxford Downs, we have come to 
the conclusion that we can only save what we have left by sending them 
to the butcher. After exercising every precaution this is the third year 
that we have lost 33% of the lambs, and the audacity of the coyotes 
this year promises to rob us of all the ewes as well as the lambs. We 
have put into practice all the information and instructions we could ob- 
tain as to poisoning the brutes — but no fear, they will not pick up bait 
nor return to a half consumed carcass while they can get a nice fresh, 
live lamb. The anxiety, loss of time and vexation is too much and we 
have, most reluctantly, decided to go out of sheep." 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 197 

F. Cornwall, Cherry Creek : " I shall not know the extent of our loss until 
we make count in the fall, but we have a large number of ewes with full 
udders and no lambs. At the Sugar Loaf, our sheep range, it is impos- 
sible to keep the sheep there this year. Every day they are scattered 
to the lower ground by coyotes, beyond the power of the herder to pre- 
vent it, good man as he is. One of my neighbours raised a lot of poultry 
— including many turkeys — the coyotes have made sad havoc with them 
in spite of every effort to circumvent them, and the result will be a very 
heavy financial loss." 

D. W. Strachan, Superintendent Alexandria Ranch {King Edward 
Sanatorium), Tranquille : "I cannot tell you our exact losses, but they are 
heavy, in spite of having an extra boy to look after the bunch. The sheep 
are pure bred Cotswolds and the loss of over 30% of lambs each year 
is a serious one for the ranch and also for the community in face of the 
shortage in both mutton and wool. Let me say, speaking as President 
of the Wool Growers Association, that this subject is ever before us at 
our meetings, for we are all sufferers, and the inevitable conclusion is 
that, until some drastic steps are taken to attack the pests in their breed- 
ing places, and this must be vigorously followed up, there will be no further 
development of sheep husbandry, and consequently no addition to the 
mutton supply, or the production of wool." 

Mrs. Hoffman, Shuswap: "We dare not let our sheep outside the fence, 
and during the early part of last year my son shot 15 coyotes which came 
inside the pasture after the lambs." 

W. W. Shaw, Heffley Creek: "Purchased 125 sheep last year. Up to 
midsummer of this year, had lost by coyotes 30 ewes and 60 lambs." 

Mr. H. F. Mytton, B. C. Fruitlands Co.: "A thorough sportsman who 
spends all his spare time in hunting coyotes and encouraging others to 
do so, had only last week a chicken chased to and killed on his door step 
— this was defiance with a vengeance." 

Coyotes are no Respecters of Persons 

The Superintendent of the Provincial Government Experimental Farm, 
Cariboo Road, says: "Coyotes are very bad and we have lost at least 
25% of the lambs, and it looks like selling off the bunch or letting the 
cpyotes finish them." 

C. G. Cowan, a neighbouring cattle rancher, with a flock of sheep, says : 
"The coyotes having punished the Provincial Government flock have 
turned their attention to ours. Although we did not keep sheep as a 
commercial proposition they were profitable and afforded us fresh meat 



198 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 



when it would not be desirable to kill a steer for the ranch hands. But 
the coyotes have got the whip hand of us and our bunch will all be sold 
in a few days," 

An Expert Opinion 

Mr. A. Bryan Williams, for many years Provincial Game Warden, in a 
letter to the Wool Growers Association last March (1918), states: "It ap- 
pears to me that the coyote question is one in which your Association 
and my Department are equally interested, and if I had been retaining 
my present position I should have been extremely pleased to have worked 
in conjunction with you. There is one thing, however, to which I might 
call your attention, which I believe is of particular interest to your Asso- 
ciation, and that is that the sheep-killing coyote is very seldom killed. 
The great majority of coyotes killed are not sheep-killers, the latter is 
very wary, and it takes a really first class professional to catch him, and I 
believe it would pay to have such a man employed by the Department of 
Agriculture, to go from place to place, wherever his services were re- 
quired, and trap these coyotes. I believe that more good has been done 
in the United States by these professionals than any other way. I im- 
agine, however, there would be extreme difficulty in getting such a man, 
at any rate at the present time, but the idea is well worth considering." 

In British Columbia a vigorous campaign against these 
animals has been carried on for a number of years. During 
recent years bounties have been paid on the following num- 
bers: 



1914 



1915 



1916 



Wolves . 
Cougars 
Coyotes 



382 

280 

4,138 



299 
235 

7,482 



210 

221 

17,352 



The greatest number of cougars was killed in Vancouver 
Island. In spite of this destruction the number of these 
predatory animals has undoubtedly increased, and the 
coyote nuisance, in particular, has become more serious in 
the sheep-raising sections. In his annual report for 1916 
the provincial game warden of British Columbia states: 
"The coyote nuisance has become a very serious one, as 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 199 

not only have they practically cleaned up all the stock of 
grouse, killed fawns and the deer themselves by the hun- 
dreds, but they have made the keeping of sheep in some 
parts of the interior almost an impossibility at the present 
time, and the number of domestic fowl they have killed 
would total a good many thousand dollars. The whole of 
the Dry Belt simply swarms with these pests. ..." Over 
$50,000 was paid by the provincial government in bounties 
on these pests, and in spite of this expenditure the evil was 
not abated. 

This demonstrates most conclusively that as a means of 
destroying predatory animals the bounty system is a failure. 

Alberta. — In response to my inquiries, Mr. B. Lawton, 
chief game guardian and wolf bounty inspector for the Prov- 
ince of Alberta, has furnished the following information with 
regard to the payment of bounties by the provincial govern- 
ment for the destruction of wolves and coyotes, and the 
extent of the damage caused by these predatory animals: 

L Since the formation of the Province in 1905, bounty has been con- 
tinually paid for the destruction of grey or timber wolves. In the years 
1907, 1908, 1909 and 1917 bounty was paid on prairie wolves, or coyotes. 

2. The amount of bounty paid each year is as follows: 

1906 $1,860.00 1912 $2,141.30 

1907 2,940.00 1913 2,984.75 

1908 26,701.32 1914 '. 4,208.30 

1909 25,231.28 1915 4,188.70 

1910 3,005.30 1916 409.48 

1911 2,763.90 1917 1,160.15 

3. Grey or timber wolves are very destructive to game in the mountains 
and in the northern part of the province. In the ranching districts in 
the southern part of the province a limited amount of damage is caused 
by timber wolves. Quantities of poultry and some calves, colts, sheep 
and lambs are destroyed by the prairie wolves ; they are also very destruc- 
tive to game and other birds. They appear to be much more plentiful 
at times; this is more noticeable when there is a scarcity of rabbits. At 
such times they are compelled to come into the settlements to obtain a 



200 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

livelihood, the result being that some animals and poultry suffer to a 
greater extent than at other times. I do not think that timber wolves 
are as destructive as they were some years ago, owing to being fewer in 
number, neither do I think that there are as many coyotes as formerly.* 
The statistics as to losses are not available. 

4. Stockmen's associations have been offering a bounty independent 
of the bounty offered by the Government; this applies more particularly 
to a bounty on timber wolves. 

The following letters which I have received indicate the 
loss and expense caused by the depredations of coyotes in 
Alberta: 

Mr. W. E. Ross, Clive, Alta., writes: "I lost 8 calves out of 55 and had 
to build a fence around two acres to take in the houses with a chicken- 
proof fence to raise chickens." 

Mr. Alex. Lewis, Bon Accord, Alta., writes: "I have lived in Edmonton 
for over 20 years. The past three years I was troubled with coyotes. 
I had to keep one of the children with them [the sheep] when they were 
on the range. I did not lose more than one or two by coyotes. The 
last two years (1916-17) the coyotes have again started to devour them. 
Last summer (1917) I lost at least $150.00 worth of lambs by coyotes. 
And every year since I lived on my homestead we have lost poultry, 
sometimes an old turkey and her whole flock of young ; we have lost as 
many as 50 hens and chickens in a season. I have just completed my 
sheep pasture by fencing with a 14-line wire. I had to act as shepherd 
last summer and stay with the sheep whenever they were in the pasture. 
I have lived 17 years on my homestead and I am certain that my loss 
in that time would exceed $500.00, besides the expense of fencing and 
watching." 

Saskatchewan. — On account of the menace to the live- 
stock interests of the province, the provincial government 
has endeavoured by means of the bounty system to encour- 
age the destruction of wolves and coyotes. In response to 
my inquiries Mr. F. H. Auld, deputy minister of agriculture 
for Saskatchewan, has furnished me with the following in- 
formation on the control of coyotes and wolves in Sas- 
katchewan : 

Your letter of the 20th ultimo, having reference to the control of wolves 
and coyotes, is hereby acknowledged. 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 



201 



In reply I have to say that during the six years prior to the establish- 
ment of this province in 1905 the sum of $14,000 was expended in bounty 
on timber wolves in the southern portion of what was then the Northwest 
Territories. During this period 616 adults and 1,633 pups were killed. 

In 1906 the appropriation set aside for the destruction of wolves was 
not made use of by the Provincial Range Stock Growers Association for 
whose benefit it was appropriated, and therefore it was decided to insti- 
tute a competition and substantial prizes were offered for the greatest 
number of wolves killed by individuals, and also for the greatest number 
of skins shipped, so that a local market for wolf pelts might be established. 
Eleven prizes ranging from $20 to $150 were awarded, and the results 
obtained were considered to be very satisfactory. 

The Wolf Bounty Act was passed in 1907. Under its provisions it 
was optional with municipalities as to whether or not they established 
Wolf Bounty districts. The bounty was fixed at $10 for timber wolves 
and $1 for coyotes, half of which was refunded by the Government upon 
surrender of the wolf bounty certificate. This policy was changed in 
1913 when The Wolf Bounty Act was amended making it compulsory 
for all municipalities to pay bounty. Provision was also made that 
municipalities may increase the amount of bounty if they so desire, but 
the refund paid by the Government remained the same — fifty per cent of 
the stipulated bounty of $10 for timber wolves and $1 for coyotes and 
pups. The results of this policy are tabulated below: 



Statement of grey wolves and coyotes killed in Saskatchewan from 
1907 to 1917. 



Year 


Coyotes 


Grey 
Wolves 


Total Bounty 

Paid by 
Municipalities 


Amount Re- 
funded by 
Government 


1907 


2,647 
15,072 
11,080 

8,966 
10,230 

7,626 
11,400 
16,906 
34,662 
44,835 
41,000 


2 
114 
230 
221 
270 
206 
38 
30 

40 
49 


$2,704.00 
15,951.00 
13,380.00 
11,176.00 
12,930.00 
9,686.00 
11,776.00 
17,202.00 
34,973.00 
57,263.00 
45,000.00 


$1,323.00 

7,932.50 

6,690.00 

5,588.00 

6,465.00 

4,843.00 

5,888.00 

8,601.00 

17,486.50 

22,617.50 

20,750.00 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 




204,424 


1,200 


$232,041.00 


$108,184.50 



202 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

We have no statistics regarding the actual losses due to the depreda- 
tions of wolves and coyotes, but it is generally stated that they are verjr 
destructive to sheep and poultry, and sportsmen claim them to be one 
of the worst enemies of big game and ground-nesting game birds and eggs. 
On the other hand, they destroy gophers and field mice which are very 
injurious pests of the farm, and the value of wolf pelts is quite a considera- 
tion at this writing, an average price of |10 being paid for No. 1 skins, and 
extra good pelts have sold as high as $18. 

Present methods of control can certainly be improved upon provided 
the co-operation of the citizens can be enlisted. I doubt very much 
whether the bounty system is instrumental in the killing of more than 
twenty per cent of the wolves for which bounty is paid. In my opinion 
most of the wolves are killed incidentally by farmers in the course of 
their daily duties, others make a practice of hunting wolves in the winter 
for sport, or for the value of the fur. I believe that the money appro- 
priated annually for the payment of wolf bounties would be productive of 
better results were it expended in paying experienced hunters and trap- 
pers to systematically attack this problem. Under their guidance at- 
tempts might be made to comb out the wolves methodically in certain 
districts, the areas being extended in successive units year by year. 
Although this plan would not exterminate the wolves I think better re- 
sults would accrue than have been secured in the past. The pelts thus 
taken would be the property of the Government and sold to help defray 
expenses. 

It is often argued that if the Government would increase the bounty 
it would be an added incentive to kill the wolves. In my opinion the 
present high prices paid for wolf pelts is a sufficient inducement to hunt 
wolves when the fur is prime. It might be advantageous to discontinue 
the payment of bounties under the present plan, and try paying a bounty 
of say SIO on all females killed during the first four months of each year. 

The principle of co-operation adopted to any plan of campaign is un- 
doubtedly beneficial to the project in hand, and far better results may be 
expected than would be secured in the case of individual haphazard 
methods of control. On this ground alone your proposal seems worthy 
of the united support of all concerned, and in my opinion some such action 
as you suggest would go a long way toward the solution of this difficult 
problem. 

The foregoing statement shows that in spite of the ex- 
penditures made in an earnest effort to control these pred- 
atory animals the bounty system has not succeeded, as the 
live-stock men admit. 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 203 

The views of the stockmen of Saskatchewan on the danger 
from coyotes in that province are set forth in the following 
statement of the Live Stock Commission:* 

Protection Against Sheep Pests: "So far as sheep are concerned, the 
timber wolf, the coyote and the dog are more dangerous than any bacillus; 
the sheep of Saskatchewan are free from the intestinal parasites which 
plague flocks in so many parts of the United States. The coyote is par- 
ticularly harmful in many rough or partly wooded sections which would 
otherwise be well adapted to sheep, and worrying dogs may appear in 
any section. 

" It has been the practice of the Government of Saskatchewan for some 
years to pay a bounty of $L00 per head on coyotes killed in the province. 
As this sum is only a small portion of the value of the pelts, it is open to 
question whether the offer of the bounty has led to the killing of many 
more wolves than would have been killed without it. It would be well, 
therefore, to consider whether part or all of the amount usually expended 
in this fashion could not be used to better purpose in some alternative 
method of combatting the wolf pest, and particularly in encouraging the 
breeding and use of wolf hounds." 

The following is typical of the experience of stockmen: 

Mr. J. C. Hall, Lumsden, Sask., writes: "Thej'' [the coyotes] are a 
perfect pest here; also the cause of very material damage and expense. I 
bought this farm with the intention of raising stock of various kinds, but 
I find that to start sheep raising would be very poor business under the 
circumstances." 

Manitoba. — The coyote problem in Manitoba is admira- 
bly set forth in the following letter, which I have received 
from Mr. W. W. Fraser, provincial live-stock commissioner: 

"We regard this pest as being an exceedingly serious one, more par- 
ticularly in the newer districts and where there is more or less shelter 
by way of trees and scrub. He is a menace chiefly to the sheep industry. 
I desire to point out clearly that it is not only what he destroys in the 
form of sheep, poultry and game to an alarming degree in the aggregate, 
but where I consider the real damage is done is that hundreds of our farm- 

* Final Report of the Live Stock Cammission of the Province of Saskatchewan, 
1918, p. 21. Published by the Department of Agriculture of Saskatchewan, 
Regina. 



204 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

ers in this western country refuse to go into the sheep industry because of 
the above facts. As I go through the country discussing the sheep and. 
poultry situation, every district has numerous men who state they would 
go into the sheep industry were it not for the destruction done by the 
coyote, and they can point out concrete cases where their neighbors have 
been subjected to this pest for years. They declare it remains equally as 
bad at the present time as in the past; therefore, they cannot go into the 
sheep industry, although they would like to. 

"Whole flocks of poultry, such as turkeys and geese, have been wiped 
out after the owner carefully fostered them all summer, and, if not, the 
whole flock has frequently been reduced to 50 or 60 per cent. 

"This pest does not seem to have been seriously taken into considera- 
tion by many of our representative men, such as local and Dominion 
representatives in our Legislatures, as well as men who represent us in 
other capacities." 

The following extracts from letters that I have received 
are typical of the experiences of many farmers in the 
province : 

Mr. A. A. Titus, Napinka, Man., turites: "All sheep men lose heavily. 
Not one in ten shepherds escapes loss. I lost 25 sheep and lambs last 
year (1917); more than half were pure-bred Shropshires. I lost $200 in 
time watching as well. Total loss close to SI, 000. Coyotes eat half the 
turkeys of the country and from 10 to 50 per cent of other poultry, accord- 
ing to district. A few new-born calves are eaten." 

Mr. James MacField, Two Creeks, Man., writes : "We have been bothered 
with them for years around this part of the country. There are no sheep 
farmers to speak of as they think the coyotes would be a great menace, 
but every farmer tries to raise poultry and I may say every farmer loses 
in cold cash anywhere from $50 to $100 every year. The people are doing 
what they can to exterminate the wolf but we cannot afford the time to 
hunt wolves for two dollars per head. This winter (1917-18) there have 
been a great many try their hand trapping but with little success. I 
figure I can trap as well as the average man and I worked my spare time 
all winter and only got three for my trouble." 

The Necessity of Organized Control by Hunting 
AND Trapping 

The most successful method of destroying coyotes, wolves, 
and other predatory animals is by the organization of sys- 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 205 

tematic hunting by paid hunters, receiving no bounties and 
working under government control. This poHcy is giving 
excellent results in the United States, as will be shown 
presently. 

The problem is by no means a local one, nor even a pro- 
vincial one; it is both interprovincial and international in 
character, and it is only by organization along these lines 
that ultimate success will be obtained. What we need is 
co-operation among all concerned: individuals, live-stock 
organizations, and governments; all of them should con- 
tribute to the funds that are needed to carry out the work 
after a broad policy has been formulated. 

The present time is most appropriate for the initiation of 
a comprehensive scheme for the destruction of the predatory 
animals affecting our live-stock interests and wild-life re- 
sources. There is an urgent need for the increasing of our 
live stock in Canada, and Dominion and provincial govern- 
ments are conducting vigorous campaigns with this end in 
view; but, as the preceding facts have clearly shown, these 
efforts cannot be wholly successful, especially in the matter 
of sheep-raising and wool production, unless the failure of 
the bounty systems as a means of destroying predatory 
animals is recognized by our governments and steps are 
taken to put into effect a similar scheme to that now in suc- 
cessful operation in the United States. 

Steps must be taken to remove the obstacles in the way 
of successful sheep-raising. At the present time farmers 
are either prevented from taking up or they are compelled 
to discontinue sheep-raising on account of the losses caused 
by these predatory animals. In addition, when an effort is 
made to raise sheep the farmers experience loss of stock, 
loss of time shepherding their stock, and loss of money in 
building the necessary fences. 

With the return of large numbers of soldiers from mili- 
tary service in Europe there should be no difficulty in ob- 



206 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

taining a sufficient number of hunters and trappers; in fact, 
such work would be the means of finding employment for 
many men who are skilled in hunting and trapping, and 
who prefer such occupation, and might advisedly form part 
of the resettlement scheme. 



Control of Predatory Animals in the United 

States 

Owing to the enormous losses experienced by the live- 
stock interests in the United States, particularly in the 
stock-raising areas of the West, the Federal and State gov- 
ernments have been compelled to take very active measures 
to eradicate the predatory animals which are responsible 
for their losses. 

It is estimated by Dr. E. W. Nelson, chief of the Biologi- 
cal Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture, 
that predatory animals destroy annually from twenty to 
thirty million dollars' worth of live stock on the western 
cattle ranges. The United States Forest Service estimates 
that each wolf destroys annually an average of $1,000 
worth of live stock, each coyote $50, each cougar or moun- 
tain lion $500, each bobcat $50, and each stock-kilHng 
grizzly bear $500. 

In the annual report of the United States Biological Sur- 
vey for 1917-1918 it is stated that the chairman of the State 
Live Stock Board of Utah estimates an annual loss in that 
region amounting to 500,000 sheep and 4,000,000 pounds 
of wool. The President of the New Mexico College of 
Agriculture, as a result of a survey of conditions in that 
State, estimates an annual loss there of 3 per cent of the 
cattle, or 34,000 head, and 165,000 sheep. A single wolf 
killed by one of the Bureau hunters in southern New Mexico 
was reported by stock-owners of that vicinity to have killed 
during the preceding six months 150 head of cattle, valued 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 207 

at not less than $5,000. In July, 1917, 2 male wolves were 
killed in Wyoming which in May had destroyed 150 sheep 
and 7 colts. Another pair of wolves killed near Opal, Wyo., 
were reported to have killed about $4,000 worth of stock a 
year. Another Wyoming wolf, trapped in June, 1918, had 
killed 30 cattle during the spring. These figures indicate 
the destructive powers of predatory animals. 

During the year ending June 30, 1919, the following num- 
bers of predatory animals were taken by hunters under the 
direction of the United States Biological Survey: 

Wolves 584 Bob-cats 4,123 

Coyotes 27,100 Lynxes 43 

Cougars 149 Bears 81 

In the case of especially destructive animals, exceptionally 
skilled hunters and trappers are detailed to capture such 
animals as rapidly as they are reported, and it is stated that 
the success in capturing them has resulted in a great addi- 
tion to the meat output of the ranges. 

In response to my inquiries respecting the organization 
of the Biological Survey of the United States Department 
of Agriculture for the control of predatory animals, Dr. E. 
W. Nelson, chief of the Bureau, has very kindly furnished 
me with a memorandum giving full details of the manner in 
which this important work is carried on, from which state- 
ment, which is dated March, 1917, the following account has 
been prepared : 

The infested area is divided into ten districts with an 
inspector in charge of the work in each district, and an in- 
spector at large is continually in the field co-ordinating and 
supervising the entire work. The districts are as follows : 



Oregon-Washington, 


Montana, 


California-Nevada, 


Wyoming, 


Idaho, 


Colorado, 


Utah, 


New Mexico, 


Arizona, 


Texas. 



208 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

The actual destruction of the animals is accomphshed 
through hunters and trappers, at salaries of $75 per month, 
with additional allowances in meritorious cases of $10 per 
month for camp equipment, and $15 per month for each of 
two horses, the hunter to pay his own expenses, including 
subsistence for himself and horses. Almost all hunters 
furnish one or more horses. The pay of hunters is rated on 
their skill and the results secured, only the best receiving 
the full $115 per month. They are not allowed to receive 
bounties, and deductions are made for time lost. A careful 
record is kept of the number and kind of animals taken by 
each hunter as shown by reports, skins, scalps, and skulls 
submitted. 

Trapping with steel traps has been very successful, and 
has the advantage of giving known results and preserving 
for sale the skins of the animals taken. Beginning with the 
methods known to the professional trapper, the policy of 
the Bureau has been to adopt the best devices, develop new 
methods, and discard in favour of new methods such prac- 
tices as do not give satisfactory results. Annually the in- 
spectors are called to some central point for conference with 
the Bureau officials in charge of this work. 

Poisoning individual animals is occasionally done to ad- 
vantage where stock are killed and carcasses fed upon by 
depredating animals. General poisoning campaigns have 
proved very successful, but have the disadvantage that the 
number of animals destroyed cannot be definitely deter- 
mined, and the furs are not recovered. Strychnine capsules 
are being used in these operations, and experiments are 
being made with cyanide and other poisons. Hunting with 
dogs has been carried on in an experimental way, but with- 
out signal success. 

The skins of all fur-bearing animals taken by the hunters 
are cured and saved, being shipped to Washington from 
time to time. They are sold by auction. It is estimated 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 209 

that the receipts from these sales will aggregate 8 to 10 per 
cent of the cost of operations, and the net proceeds are 
turned into the United States Treasury. 

In the annual report of the Biological Survey for the year 
ending June 30, 1919, it is stated that a force of from 400 
to 500 hunters is employed in the destruction of predatory 
animals, under the direction of district inspectors in the 
nine districts mentioned above. About one-fifth of these 
are paid from co-operative funds provided by the States 
or contributed by local organizations or individuals. The 
net proceeds already received for the skins taken during 
the year amount to $76,128.56. 

The work of the United States Department of Agriculture 
demonstrates very conclusively the success of the policy of 
properly organized and systematic hunting by paid hunters, 
working under the close direction of district inspectors, as 
a means of destroying predatory animals over a large area, 
and it affords an excellent object-lesson of what might be 
done in Canada by the adoption of a similar policy. 

Lesser Predatory Mammals 

Lynx. — The Canada lynx is found throughout the Do- 
minion from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, and north- 
ward as far as the limits of our northern forests. Richardson 
states that it is found on the Mackenzie River as far north 
as latitude 66°. It is too well known to need description, 
but, as it is sometimes confused with the bobcat or bay 
lynx of eastern North America by the uninitiated, it may 
be pointed out that the Canada lynx is distinguished from 
the latter animal by its lighter gray colour, the tuft of long 
black hairs on the tips of its ears, and the large, hairy paws. 

Its chief food is the varying hare or rabbit, and the close 
relation between the periodic fluctuations of the rabbit and 
those of the lynx is discussed in another chapter. It also 



210 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

preys largely on the several species of grouse. The lynx 
will kill foxes, and it is claimed that deer and caribou are 
sometimes attacked. 

Bobcat or Bay Lynx. — This close relative of the Canada 
lynx is slightly smaller than the latter, and its fur is of a 
dark-brown colour; it lacks the long black ear-tufts, and 
only the upper side of the tip of the tail is coloured black. 
It is confined to the east, and in Nova Scotia a distinct 
variety, commonly called the wildcat, occurs. In many 
places in Nova Scotia the wildcat is destructive to sheep, 
for which reason it is destroyed whenever possible. Like 
its near relative it is an enemy of ground-game such as 
grouse. 

Foxes. — All the species of foxes, particularly the red fox, 
are destructive to our native game-birds. 

Predatory Birds 

The Great Horned Owl. — While most of the owls are bene- 
ficial as the destroyers of noxious rodents, such as mice and 
moles, the great horned owl is one of the most destructive 
of the large predatory birds. The various subspecies of 
great horned owl are found from Nova Scotia, where it is 
known as the ''cat-owl," owing to the ear-Uke tufts of 
feathers on its head, to British Columbia, and throughout 
the northern forests to the limit of tree growth. Its home 
is the heavily forested and unsettled regions. But when 
its food supplies become reduced it migrates southward, and 
during recent years there have been large numbers of these 
birds killed in the most southern portions of its range. It 
is a great enemy of grouse and other game-birds, and is 
detested by the farmer on account of its destructive raids 
on poultry. 

Goshawk. — This hawk is undoubtedly the greatest de- 
stroyer of game-birds of all the species of hawks, most of 



THE ENEMIES OF WILD LIFE 211 

which are either entirely or partially beneficial. In Nova 
Scotia it is the commonest species of hawk, and it ranges 
across Canada to British Columbia, where it is represented 
by a Western subspecies. It normally resides in the forests 
and woodland, from which it makes excursions to the open 
country, and is especially fond of raiding the farmer's poul- 
try-yard with destructive effect. In its normal haunts it 
preys upon the rabbit and grouse. When rabbits are abun- 
dant these hawks increase in numbers, but with the peri- 
odic disappearance of the rabbit they attack the grouse in 
greater numbers. When the latter birds are reduced in 
numbers through the depredations of these fierce birds, the 
shortage of food drives the hawks farther south, and, as was 
explained in discussing the scarcity of the different species 
of grouse in the prairies, they prove to be one of the worst 
enemies of our game-birds. 

This species and the two species mentioned below are the 
chief predatory enemies of our game-birds, and, inasmuch 
as they destroy large numbers of game and insectivorous 
birds, not to mention the great destruction of poultry that 
they accomplish, their protection cannot be urged, and they 
should be treated as noxious predatory animals. It is im- 
portant, however, that they should be distinguished from 
the many species of hawks that render considerable service 
to the farmer by destroying noxious rodents, such as gophers, 
moles, and mice, and noxious insects, such as grasshoppers. 

Cooper's Hawk. — This predatory species is smaller than 
the goshawk, and intermediate in size between it and the 
sharp-shinned hawk. It is not common in eastern Canada, 
and is more abundant in the West; in British Columbia it 
is generally distributed and tolerably common in the Lower 
Fraser valley. It is a strong and rapid flyer, having a 
quick, darting flight, and its boldness makes it a serious 
enemy of poultry. It can be recognized by its barred tail, 
about as long as its body, and somewhat rounded rather 



212 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

than square at the end; the wings are bluntly rounded at 
the end. 

Sharp-shinned Hawk. — Throughout the Dominion this is 
one of the commonest hawks wherever there is wooded coun- 
try or brush. It is smaller than the Cooper's hawk, but 
resembles it in flight and habits. Its tail is square at the 
end. It is a swift flyer and hunts keenly through the brush 
and along the fences, preying upon the smaller birds. In- 
asmuch as it is a great destroyer of insectivorous birds, its 
protection is not only undesirable but its destruction should 
be encouraged, provided care is taken to distinguish it from 
useful species of hawks. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF OUR FUR-BEARING 

ANIMALS 

(charts I TO V) 

Throughout the animal world we find that not only is 
the abundance of the higher predatory animals dependent 
upon the abundance of the lower forms upon which they 
prey, or which may indirectly affect their food supply, but 
this dependence may result in remarkable periodic fluctua- 
tions in the numbers of the predatory forms. In the insect 
world this phenomenon of rise and fall in abundance is well 
known; a striking example occurred in 1915, when, owing 
to the unusual prevalence of aphids, or plant-Hce, through- 
out Canada, wasps were extraordinarily abundant every- 
where in the same region, the probable explanation being 
that the wasps increased abnormally owing to the presence 
of an unusual amount of food in the form of ''honey-dew," 
which is excreted by the plant lice. Similarly, the abun- 
dance of certain species of our food fishes is affected by the 
amount of food in the shape of small Crustacea, or small 
fishes, in the sea, such food being variable in quantity. 
For instance, Bullen* showed that, in the years 1903-1907, 
there appeared to be a direct correlation between the num- 
ber of mackerel taken during May and the abundance of 
the small copepod Crustacea. 

Darwin's illustration of the relation of cats to the abun- 
dance of clover-seed is well known, but may be recalled. 
Red clover depends on the visits of bumble-bees for its 
fertihzation. The abundance of bumble-bees in any dis- 
trict depends very largely on the number of field-mice which 

* Jour. Marine Biol. Assn., vol. VIII, p. 394, 1909. 
213 



214 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

feed upon the combs and nests of the bees. The number of 
field-mice near villages and small towns is largely dependent 
upon the number of cats, with the result that bumble-bees 
are said to be more abundant near such places, with a con- 
sequent increase in the clover crop. 

When we study these phenomena as they occur in our 
wild life, the dependence of the larger animals upon the 
abundance of the smaller is very marked, and we discover 
the significance of the well-known periodical increase and 
decrease in the prevalence of many of the well-known mem- 
bers of our wild life. 

At the bottom of the scale are the numerous species of 
mice and voles, which constitute the food of so many of 
the large and small predatory animals. The observations 
of Cabot* on the rise and fall in the abundance of mice, and 
the effect on the larger anunals, are of great interest in this 
connection, as they were made in the same region, namely, 
northern Labrador and the interior of Ungava peninsula, 
and during consecutive years. When he first visited the 
region in 1903 mice were not noticeably abundant. Cari- 
bou had been abundant through the winter, and in early 
July passed north in large numbers, close to the coast. 
There were some of the large predatory birds, such as falcons. 
Few ptarmigan were seen. Foxes, the most important fur- 
bearers of the region, were fairly abundant. By 1904 there 
had been a noticeable increase in the numbers of mice. 
Hawks were more numerous. Ptarmigan were fairly nu- 
merous. Many tracks of wolves were seen, chiefly along 
the river banks, where mice occur. A wolverene that was 
killed was full of mice. Hawks and owls occurred inland. 
In 1905 the mice reached their maximum abundance. 
Cabot states: ^'Sometimes two at a time could be seen in 
the daylight. Low twigs and all small growth were riddled 
by them. There was a tattered aspect about the moss and 

* William B. Cabot, "In Northern Labrador," Boston, 1912. 



FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 215 

ground in many places not quite pleasant to see." Falcons 
were visibly more numerous and owls had increased some- 
what. A bear killed on the journey was full of mice. 
Foxes were abundant, but caribou were still scarce. On 
the next visit to Labrador in the spring of 1906 the mice 
had disappeared with the snow. The accompanying change 
in the wild life was remarkable. ''The falcon cliffs were 
deserted, coast and inland." Ptarmigan were very scarce. 
In the previous years these game-birds had enjoyed some 
respite owing to the abundance of mice, and their conse- 
quent freedom from the depredations of the predatory 
birds, but, with the disappearance of the mice, they were 
harried to death. For the first time the hunting-cry of 
wolves was heard at nights, as they sought the caribou in 
the absence of the more abundant smaller animals. As 
Cabot says: "The bearing of the mouse situation on the 
human interests of the region is easy to see. It affected all 
the game, food game and fur. The abundance of mice 
tended to build up the ptarmigan, which are of vital impor- 
tance in the whiter living of the Indians through the whole 
forested area to the Gulf. Likewise it built up the caribou 
herd by providing easier game than they for the wolves." 
The periodic increase and decrease in the abundance of 
our wild life has a very important economic aspect. It not 
only affects the life of the Indians and other inhabitants of 
the north, but also affects the output of furs, the chief 
natural resource of the greater part of the country. The 
extent to which the fur trade fluctuates is strikingly shown 
in the fur returns from year to year. Through the kindness 
of Mr. W. H. Bacon, late fur commissioner of the Hudson's 
Bay Company, I have been able to obtain the fur returns 
of that company covering a long period of years, from 1821 
to 1914. As this is the chief company obtaining furs in 
Canada, with posts distributed throughout the country, 
and particularly in the north, where wild-life conditions are 



216 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

practically uninfluenced by the agricultural development of 
the country, their returns may be taken, not only as an in- 
dex of the total quantity of furs of the different species of 
fur-bearing animals taken in Canada in any year, but also 
as a fair index of the relative abundance of these species. 
From these figures the accompanying charts have been pre- 
pared, and they illustrate very graphically the abundance 
from year to year of the chief species of fur-bearers and their 
periodic increase and decrease.* 

Varying Hare or Rabbit. — If we study the data respecting 
the increase and decrease in abundance of the common rab- 
bit or varying hare (Lepus americanus) , which is widely dis- 
tributed throughout the country, especially in the north, 
we find ample confirmation of the well-known facts respect- 
ing the abundance from year to year of this common food 
and fur-bearing animal. Their capacity for increase in 
numbers is very great. 

The females usually begin to breed when a year old. 
They bear two or three, and sometimes four to six young 
at a time, and are said to breed two or three times in a 
season, the period of gestation being about thirty days. 
MacFarlane states: "The litter usually consists of three or 
four; but when in the 'periodic' increase, females are known 
to have as many as six, eight, or even ten at a time, and 
then gradually return to three or four." 

If we take the periods of maximum abundance of the rab- 
bit, according to the Hudson's Bay Company's returns, we 
find they occurred in the following years: 

1845, 1854, 1857, 1865, 1877, 1888, 1897, and 1905, or in 
other words in cycles of 9, 3, 8, 12, 11, 9, and 8, 
giving an average periodic cycle of 8.5 years. 

* MacFarlane, in his "Mammals of the Northwest Territories" (1905), a 
memoir to which I make frequent reference, and E. T. Seton, in his book 
"The Arctic Prairies," have called attention to these fur returns and the 
indications they afford of the fluctuations in number of the fur-bearing animals. 




ru M ro 

o o o 




m 



:?: 




:5. 



IS20 
1825 
IS30 
1835 
18^0 
1845 
1850 
1855 
I860 
1865 
1870 
1875 
I88Q 
1885 
1890 
1895 
1900 
1905 



-g 



ro fv> M 



1909 



PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF RABBIT. LYNX. AND WOLVERENE 

IN CANADA 



218 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

This approaches very closely the prevailing popular idea 
of a seven-year cycle for this animal. They are not gener- 
ally equally abundant throughout the country in the same 
year, the abundance is usually regional in character, and 
the period of general abundance would cover several years. 
The fur returns indicate the year of the average maximum 
abundance. The regional character of the abundance of 
the rabbit will be shown from the following data of various 
observers, which Seton* has collected regarding the periods 
of increase in different regions of Manitoba. 

Lake of the Woods, 1856, followed by a plague in 1857 
(Hind). 

Upper Assiniboine, 1857 (Hind). 

Savanne Portage (70 miles west of Fort William), 1858-9 
(Hind). 

Portage La Loche, 1875 (J. Macoun). 

Shoal Lake and Stony Mountain, 1883-4, followed by a 
plague in 1885 (J. H. Cadham). 

Red River and Assiniboine Valley, all the poplar country 
in the basins of Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis, 
Pembina, Riding, Duck and Turtle Mountains, 
1886-7, followed by a plague in 1887. 

Shoal Lake, Manitoba, 1893-4 (W. G. Tweddell). 

Central Manitoba, 1894. 

In other parts of Canada, Seton records the following: 

Northern British Columbia, 1872 (J. Macoun). 

Mackenzie River Valley, 1903-4. Preblef also describes 
the enormous abundance of rabbits in this region 
during the same period, when, according to Seton, 
there were "millions in 1904, none at all in 1907." 

The last period of abundance reached its climax in the 
Northwest in 1914, Wlien I visited the Rocky Mountains 

* "Life Histories of Northern Mammals," vol. I, pp. 640-641, 1909. 
t E. A. Preble, "A Biological Investigation of the Athabaska-Mackenzie 
Region," North American Faima, No. 27, Washington, 1908. 



FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 219 

region of northern Alberta, in 1915, signs of the recent 
abundance of rabbits were everywhere. For miles along the 
trails the young growth of poplar had been barked and 
girdled by the hordes of rabbits during the previous winter. 
But hardly a rabbit was to be seen; they had almost com- 
pletely disappeared. 

The cause of the sudden plague which kills off the rab- 
bits when they reach their greatest abundance so that the 
whole countryside is overrun with them is probably of a 
multiple nature. The chief factor is undoubtedly over- 
crowding. This results in an epidemic of various parasitic 
diseases to which rabbits are susceptible, particularly one 
of bacterial origin, which speedily spread throughout the 
rabbit population of the affected territory. 

Constituting as it does the chief food of many of the 
larger fur-bearing animals, such as lynx, fox, and wolf, the 
rabbit is one of the most important factors in determining 
the abundance of these animals. 

Lynx. — The lynx is primarily dependent upon the rabbit 
as a source of food, although it also devours mice, grouse, 
ducks, stranded fish, young deer, or sheep. Its periods of 
abundance, therefore, correspond with those of the rabbit. 
Preble states that the winter of 1903-04 was remarkable 
for the abundance of lynxes throughout the upper Mackenzie 
region, this abundance of lynxes being accounted for by the 
enormous numbers of rabbits in the same region at that 
time. Following the last outbreak of rabbits to which I 
have referred, lynxes were very abundant, according to the 
reports that I have received, during the winters of 1914 and 
1915. When the rabbits had disappeared there was a re- 
markable southern migration of lynxes throughout the 
northwest, and, during the winters of 1916 and 1917, they 
were taken in districts in the Prairie Provinces, whither 
they had migrated in search of food in more southerly locali- 
ties than they have been recorded as visiting for many 



220 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

years. Consequently enormous numbers of them have been 
killed during the last few years, and this no doubt accounts 
for the greater adoption of the lynx as a fur since 1916. 

The regularity of the periodic increase of the lynx is most 
strikingly shown in the accompanying chart of the fur re- 
turns of the Hudson's Bay Company. The first year of 
abundance, according to these records, occurred in 1831. 
After that we find the following years of maximum abun- 
dance: 1839, 1848, 1859, 1868, 1878, 1888, 1897, 1906. 
Personal records indicate that 1916 was the last year of 
maximum abundance. The cycles, therefore, occurred in 
periods of 8, 9, 11, 9, 10, 10, 9, 9, and 10 years, giving an 
average periodic cycle of 9.5 years. It will be noted, when 
these years of maximum abundance are compared with those 
of the rabbit, that the lynx becomes most abundant, or 
rather the greatest number were caught, during the year of 
maximum rabbit abundance to three and four years later. 
This is what one would expect. The capture of large num- 
bers of lynx during the two or three years after the disap- 
pearance of the rabbits is accounted for by the ease with 
which these animals, greatly increased in numbers on ac- 
count of the period of rabbit abundance, can be captured 
in snares owing to the absence of their chief article of food. 
It should be pointed out that a year of greatest abundance, 
according to the fur returns, would probably follow a year 
of greater abundance than the fur returns actually show, 
owing to the fact that when the natural food, rabbits or 
mice, is most abundant, the animals are harder to trap than 
when these food animals have suddenly disappeared. The 
decrease in the number of lynx after a period of abundance 
is no doubt due to the disappearance of the rabbit. This 
rule applies to all predatory animals; their abundance or 
scarcity is governed directly by the available food supply, 
whether the animal be a predacious insect or a predacious 
mammal. 




PERIODIC FLUCTUATION OF RED, CROSS, BLACK, AND WHITE FOX 



222 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Foxes. — The red fox and its colour phases, cross -fox, 
black fox, and silver fox, exhibit marked periodic cycles, al- 
though they are not so pronounced as those of the lynx. 
This is probably accounted for by the fact that, while the 
fox feeds upon the rabbit, especially when the latter animal 
is abundant, it also feeds largely on mice or voles, supple- 
menting this diet with game-birds of various kinds. If we 
had records of the years of mouse abundance we should 
probably find, judging from the field observations of Cabot, 
that have already been given, Preble, and others, that there 
was a correlation between the abundant years of mice and 
the abundance of foxes. 

The fluctuations in the numbers of foxes is well known to 
trappers and traders. The period of comparative abundance 
may extend over a greater number of years than is the case 
with the lynx; this is indicated in the diagrams by the fact 
that the difference in numbers between the years of abun- 
dance and the years of scarcity is not so great in the case 
of the fox as in the case of the lynx, and the reason is 
probably to be found in the fact that the fox is not so de- 
pendent upon a rabbit diet. 

As the three varieties of foxes — red, cross, and black — 
have similar feeding-habits and inhabit the same territo- 
ries, so far as the forested regions of Canada are concerned, 
it would be natural to assume that their fluctuations in num- 
bers would closely correspond. The Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany's returns show that this is the case, as will be seen 
by the diagram. The years of maximum abundance were 
as follows: 

Red fox: 1859, 1868, 1878, 1888, 1898, 1907. 

Cross fox: 1859-1860, 1868-9, 1878, 1888, 1897, 1907. 

Black fox: 1859-1860, 1869, 1878, 1888, 1897, 1907. 

The cycles, therefore, appeared in the following periods of 
years: 



FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 223 

Red fox: 9, 10, 10, 10, 9, giving an average periodic cycle 

of 9.6 years. 
Cross fox: 9, 9, 10, 9, 10, giving an average periodic cycle 

of 9.4 years. 
Black fox: 10, 9, 10, 9, 10, giving an average periodic cycle 

of 9.6 years. 

By comparing these years with the years of maximum 
abundance of lynx and rabbit, it will be found that they 
coincide fairly closely. 

The white arctic fox and its colour phase the blue fox 
inhabit the northern Barren Grounds and the islands of the 
Arctic Sea in the summer. In the winter many of them 
wander southward in search of food. This species is re- 
ported to make caches of food for winter consumption. 
MacFarlane states that ''Captain Lockwood found several 
fox lairs. In one hidden rock nook he found fifty dead 
lemmings, in others (sand and earth covered) there were 
from twenty to thirty lemmings, while in a hollow he dis- 
covered a cache containing part of a polar hare and the 
wings of a young brent goose and the usual lemming. The 
lairs appeared to be occupied from year to year." 

The numbers appear to fluctuate very considerably over 
shorter periods than is the case with the more southerly 
red fox and its colour phases. The Hudson's Bay Company's 
returns give the following years of maximum abundance: 

1856, 1861, 1864, 1869, 1873, 1878, 1884, 1888, 1892, 1896, 
1899, 1903, 1907, 1911. 

The periodic cycles accordingly covered the following num- 
ber of years: 

5, 3, 5, 4, 5, 6, 4, 4, 4, 3, 4, 4, 4. 

The average periodical cycle occurred in 4.2 years; 4 years 
was the actual length of the periodic cycle in the majority 
of the periods. 




PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF WOLF, MARTEN, AND FISHER 
IN CANADA 



FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 225 

The periods of maximum abundance of the blue phase 
of the arctic fox correspond in almost every case with those 
of the white phase, so no special reference to these is neces- 
sary. 

Wolves. — When the fluctuations in numbers of the larger 
predatory animals, such as the wolf, are studied it is found 
that they do not show a very regular or marked periodicity. 
This is no doubt accounted for by the wide range of their 
food, the grey wolf feeding on all forms of herbivorous 
animals, from a mouse to a moose, and the prairie wolf or 
coyote being a very general feeder, including in its diet not 
only larger animals such as antelope or sheep, but even in- 
sects such as locusts, and also berries. When mice or rab- 
bits are plentiful wolves will take their share of such abun- 
dant food, but the fact that they can also satisfy their 
hunger with deer, caribou, or moose prevents any marked 
decrease in their numbers when the smaller rodents are 
killed off. In fact, if we examine the diagrams of rabbit 
and wolf returns of the Hudson's Bay Company (the wolf 
returns include both grey wolf and coyote) we shall find 
that in a number of instances the greatest number of wolves 
were taken in years of rabbit scarcity, and when rabbits 
were at their maximimi the wolf returns were low. The 
greater difficulty of trapping wolves during periods of rab- 
bit abundance may have something to do with this condition 
of affairs, but it is in striking contrast to the cases of the 
lesser carnivorous fur-bearers, the lynx and red foxes. In 
the early days when the buffalo roamed the prairies the 
wolves found food in plenty, and the returns from about 
1840 onwards until the buffalo began to decrease in num- 
bers showed no great increase or decrease. But when the 
buffalo was gradually exterminated the numbers of wolves 
fell to a low level, and since 1879 we find a slight, though 
nevertheless noticeable, periodical increase every ten years, 
the years of maximum abundance being 1888, 1898, and 1908. 



226 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

While the difference between maximum and minimum 
abundance does not appear to be great, it is not unlikely 
that there is a distinct natural periodic cycle in the abun- 
dance of wolves. 

Marten. — After the lynx the marten shows the most pro- 
nounced periodic fluctuations of all our native mammals. 
MacFarlane states: "This is probably the most constant of 
the 'periodic' fur-bearing animals, whose presence in con- 
siderable numbers is very largely dependent upon a great 
abundance of hares or rabbits, though mice also form an 
important item of marten diet. ... In years of plenty, 
the marten is very munerous throughout the entire northern 
forest region; but it is not uniformly so at the same time 
in every section of the country all over the immense terri- 
tories covered by the Hudson's Bay Company's trading 
operations. When it is abundant or scarce, say in the 
northern and western departments, it will generally be found 
that there is an important and corresponding increase or 
decrease in the southern and Montreal departments. The 
natives maintain that lynxes and martens migrate from the 
north and west to the east and south, and that when they 
have attained their highest in numbers for several seasons 
the great bulk (no section is ever totally devoid of mar- 
tens) of those who escape capture resume the return march 
until the next period of protracted migration. It must be 
admitted that many old fur traders have come to enter- 
tain similar views from their own personal experience and 
observation. Of course there are post, district and de- 
partmental fluctuations in annual results, caused by local 
epidemics among the hunters and other relative reasons." 
That the migration theory is widely held by fur traders is 
further shown by the statement of Mr. T. K. MacDonald 
of Winnipeg, after thirty-five years' experience as a chief 
trader of the Hudson's Bay Company, quoted by Seton.* 

*" Life-Histories of Northern Mammals," vol. II, p. 907. 



FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 227 

He says: ''I think there is sufficient proof that they do mi- 
grate. A question annually put to the Indians returned 
from the woods in summer or fall was, ' What signs of marten 
have you seen?' and where few of these animals may have 
been seen in the previous winter, I would be told 'They are 
travelUng north, south, east or west,' as the ease might be, 
and so definite was the knowledge that these Indians would 
go that winter to head off the wanderers, and they never 
failed to come in contact with them. These movements 
of large bodies of the marten go on in summer till the severe 
weather sets in, beginning again in March and continuing, 
so far as the males are concerned, till such time as the snow 
is not fit to travel on; and then on again during the summer. 
It is accepted beyond cavil by aU northerners — that is, 
Hudson's Bay hunters — that the hare, lynx, and marten do 
migrate, and the fluctuation in their numbers is not con- 
sidered to be caused by epidemics, save in the case of the 
hare. The rabbit is always numerous where lynx and mar- 
ten are plentiful, and it is looked upon as a sine qua non by 
hunters and traders that it is the following up the rabbit 
and hare that causes the migrations — that the migration is, 
in fact, quest of food." 

That the migration of the marten and of the lynx is caused 
by the quest of food is a fact that cannot be controverted; 
the need of food is the explanation of the migratory move- 
ments of most animals, whether they occur among the in- 
sects, fishes, birds, or mammals. After the disappearance 
of rabbits in the northern woods the lynx and marten, in- 
creased in numbers, seek food elsewhere. Likewise the 
predatory birds such as hawks and owls migrate southward. 
But it is important that this migratory tendency should not 
be confused with the phenomenon of the periodic fluctua- 
tion. Migration is one of the earliest and most popular ex- 
planations of the disappearance of a species of animals, but 
hke many popular ideas it is not founded on fact. That 



228 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

migration is not a cause of the periodic fluctuation is proved 
by a study of the total fur returns for the whole territory 
covered by the Hudson's Bay Company. These figures 
show that while local migratory movements may occur, the 
periodic fluctuations are general for the entire territory, 
and occur with remarkable regularity. 

According to the fur returns of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany the years in which marten was most abundant were: 

1827, 1837, 1846-47, 1856, 1866, 1875, 1886, X895, 1903. 

The periodic fluctuations occurred in cycles of 

10, 9, 10, 10, 9, 11, 9 and 8 years, 

giving an average periodic cycle of 9.5 years. 

If we compare the years of maxunum abundance of the 
marten with those of the rabbit we find that the years of 
maximum marten abundance in 1846, 1856, and 1866 oc- 
curred one year after the maximum rabbit abundance, the 
years of maximum abundance in 1875, 1886, 1895, and 
1903 preceded by two years the years of maximum rabbit 
abundance, although they occurred during the period when 
rabbits in the aggregate were on the increase, and had 
almost attained the maximum. 

A study of the chart illustrating the fluctuations of mar- 
ten reveals another interesting feature, namely, the absence 
from about 1875 onwards of a very marked regularity of the 
curves of increase and decrease, such as occurred previous to 
that year. This, I believe, is accounted for by the intro- 
duction of artificial factors of various kinds which affect 
the marten population in different parts of the country, 
and I am inclined to beheve that the greater destruction of 
the forests by fire and other causes, which has undoubtedly 
occurred since 1875, has been mainly responsible for this 
very noticeable change in the fluctuation of this species of 
fur-bearer. 



FLUCTUATIONS OF FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 229 

The marten not only feeds upon the rabbit but it also 
feeds extensively on mice, and the fluctuations in the abun- 
dance of the latter animals would no doubt influence the 
abundance of the marten. In addition its omnivorous diet 
includes other small rodents, birds and their eggs, insects, 
frogs, and such vegetable products as nuts and berries. 
But its chief diet would appear to consist of rabbits, mice, 
and birds. 

Fisher. — The largest of our martens, namely, the fisher, 
is not abundant in any part of its range, which extends 
throughout our northern forests, and during the last fifty 
years the number of fisher taken annually is little more 
than haK the number taken in years previous. Like its 
smaller relative the marten, the fisher shows marked peri- 
odic fluctuations in numbers, as will be seen from the ac- 
companying chart of the returns of the Hudson's Bay Com- 
pany. The absence of a very marked difference in numbers 
between the years of maximum and minimum abundance is 
probably due to the fact that fisher is not at any time so 
abundant as other animals which display such a marked 
difference between the years of maximum and minimum 
abundance. 

The records show that the years of maximum abundance 
of the fisher were: 

1840, 1850, 1860, 1870, 1879, 1890, 1898, 1908. 

The extraordinary regularity of the periodic fluctuations 
which occurred in cycles of 10, 10, 10, 9, 11, 8, and 10 
years is very striking in this animal, which has an average 
periodic cycle of 9.7 years. The slight deviation from the 
regular ten-year cycle from 1870 onwards, is probably due 
to disturbances in the country of its environment. 

It is of interest to note that the periodic cycles of the 
fisher, while remarkably regular, are apparently indepen- 
dent of the periodic increases of the rabbit, with the increases 



230 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

of which the numbers of the marten are, to a large extent, 
correlated. This would indicate that a predatory animal 
such as the fisher, which feeds on all kinds of mammals, 
including the porcupine, birds and their eggs, fish, frogs, 
and wild fruits, is subject to periodic fluctuations inde- 
pendent of the fluctuations of any one kind of diet. 

Mink. — The mink is one of our commonest fur-bearing 
animals, and a study of the Hudson's Bay Company's fur 
returns shows that it is not only subject to fairly regular 
periodic fluctuations, but that there has not been any 
marked diminution in their numbers. The years of maxi- 
mum abundance were: 

1846, 1858, 1869, 1878, 1885, 1897, 1903, and probably 
1914. 

The periodic fluctuations occurred, therefore, in cycles 
of 12, 11, 9, 7, 12, 6, and 11 years, giving an average periodic 
cycle of 9.7 years. While the chart shows a fairly regular 
aggregate increase, the years of maximum abundance lack 
the precise regularity that we have seen in many of the 
animals already discussed. 

The food of the mink consists primarily of fish, muskrat, 
and rabbit. We know very little about the fluctuations of 
the fish portion of the diet, but a comparison of the periods 
of greater abundance shows some correlation with the years 
of abundance of rabbit. 

Skunk. — The periodic fluctuations of the skunk are shown 
in the accompanying chart, and, while the cycles are not 
regular throughout, they indicate that this animal is sub- 
ject to very distinct periodic fluctuations in numbers. 
Feeding mainly on an insect diet composed chiefly of grass- 
hoppers during the summer months, supplemented by a 
diet of mice, snakes, and other small animals during the 
rest of the year, the diet of the skunk is of too general a 
character to permit the correlation of its abundance with 
any particular class of diet. 




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PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF MINK, OTTER, AND SKUNK 



232 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Muskrat. — The muskrat appears to be subject to peri- 
odic fluctuations, but the conditions which affect the abun- 
dance of this animal would tend to affect the regularity of 
such fluctuations. Excessively wet seasons would cause un- 
usual flooding of the marshes; or an extremely dry season, 
especially if severe frost followed, would cause wide-spread 
mortality among the muskrats, thus affecting their subse- 
quent abundance. 

When we examine the fluctuations of such animals as 
the wolverene, the black bear, the raccoon, the otter, and 
the beaver, we find that there are no distinct fluctuations 
shown by these animals. There are fluctuations, it is true, 
but they are irregular in character and not sufficiently pre- 
cise to warrant our regarding them as being of a periodic 
nature. 

Conclusions. — From the foregoing discussion it will be 
seen that we may divide the animals considered into three 
main groups. First, the herbivorous rodents such as mice 
and rabbits, which are very prolific and increase in numbers 
until they reach an abundance which causes overcrowding, 
when an epidemic of disease almost wipes them out and 
their numbers rapidly decrease to a minimum. Second, 
we have the nimierous predatory animals which depend for 
their subsistence either directly or indirectly upon the mice 
and rabbits. These animals exhibit fairly regular periodic 
fluctuations in numbers, their abundance being correlated 
with the abundance of the animals upon which they feed, 
although, as we pointed out in the case of the fisher, there 
may be a distinct periodic fluctuation which does not appear 
to be directly related to the fluctuation in the numbers of 
any particular food animal. Finally, we have the animals 
that feed on a mixed or exclusive diet of insects, vegetable 
products, fish, or miscellaneous diet, that do not show any 
marked periodic fluctuations. 

The economic value of this study in enabling us to pre- 




PERIODIC FLUCTUATIONS OF BLACK BEAR, RACCOON, AND 

BEAVER 



234 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

diet to a large extent the years of abundance of many of our 
important fur-bearing animals is sufficient to warrant a 
more careful and intensive study of these phenomena and the 
underljdng causes. Is the decrease in abundance due to 
starvation, owing to the disappearance of the main article 
of diet, or does a decrease in the food supply affect the fer- 
tihty of the predatory species? According to MacFarlane, 
the females are said to be more prohfic when the numbers 
of the animals constituting the main food are on the in- 
crease. Does the overfeeding consequent upon the great 
abundance of food affect, in an adverse manner, the repro- 
ductive powers of the predatory sjDecies? All these are 
problems which demand further close study in the field. 
It is hoped that such studies, extending over a number 
of years, may be undertaken by competent investigators 
in the future, as such a knowledge of the causes of these 
fluctuations is essential to an adequate understanding of a 
subject having economic possibilities of a very high order. 



CHAPTER X 

RESERVES FOR GAME AND WILD LIFE IN CANADA 

Under the peculiar conditions that exist on the North 
American continent, where the opening up of enormous 
areas of land by agricultural development, the penetration 
of virgin forest by railroads, lumbermen, and prospectors, 
and the reclamation of the wilderness have led to wide- 
spread destruction of the haunts of our wild life, with a 
consequent disappearance of the greater portion of it, other 
measures than the promulgation of game laws, which at 
the best are difficult to enforce completely, are necessary 
to insure the preservation of what wild life remains. Of 
such protective measures by far the most important is the 
establishment of wild-life reserves, refuges, or sanctuaries 
in which the native mammals and birds are protected. 
Such wild-Ufe reserves should include a sufficient area to 
provide ample natural summer and winter range for the 
wild life that they are intended to protect. They should 
be, and as a rule are, unsuitable for agricultural develop- 
ment. Nor should they include mining or other commer- 
cial properties that are likely to interfere with their purpose. 
So far as is possible the boundaries of such reserves should 
be well defined, and the necessary steps should be taken to 
secure within the reserve areas the required protection to 
the wild life they contain, and all protective measures 
should be rigidly enforced. 

THE NATIONAL PARKS 

We have reason to be proud of the withdrawal from settle- 
ment and establishment by the Dominion Government of 
extensive tracts of land as national parks, for the purpose, 

235 



236 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

not only of preserving areas of incomparably magnificent 
scenery in which recreation may be sought by our people, 
but also of protecting the wild life that such areas contain. 
In most cases the double function is combined; in other 
cases areas have been reserved for the sole purpose of pro- 
tecting our wild life. 

As the Dominion Government only controls the crown- 
lands in the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Al- 
berta, and the areas known as the ''Railway Belt" and 
"Peace River Block" in British Columbia, the Dominion 
parks are restricted to such provinces. In fact, these parks 
are mainly in the Rocky Mountain region of Alberta, the 
management of the wild-life reserves in the greater portion 
of these western provinces having been left to the provin- 
cial governments, as will be shown subsequently. The 
Dominion parks are administered by the Parks branch of 
the Department of the Interior, under the direction of the 
Commissioner of Dominion Parks. 

All the Dominion Parks are absolute preserves for wild 
life, hunting being strictly prohibited within their borders, 
and fishing is allowed under special regulations (see p. 275). 

Jasper Park. — Jasper Park is the largest of the Dominion 
parks. It was established by Order in Council of September 
14, 1907, and comprises an area of approximately 4,400 
square miles. Within its confines are to be found magnifi- 
cent ranges of mountains and incomparable peaks, one of 
the most beautiful of which is Mount Edith Cavell (11,033 
feet), which was named in honour of that brave English 
nurse who died a martyr to German brutality, of which this 
mountain will be a lasting reminder. The park affords un- 
excelled and extensive natural range for practically all the 
big-game animals. Mountain sheep and goats are increasing 
in numbers, grizzly and black bears are not uncommon, 
and will multiply with the absolute protection they now 
enjoy. Moose were abundant before the advent of the 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 237 

two transcontinental railroads which traverse the park, 
and, although large numbers were killed during the con- 
struction of these railroads, they wiU undoubtedly increase. 
Wapiti or elk were formerly found in the wooded valleys, 
and it is hoped that on account of their protection and in- 
crease in the region south of the park they will repopulate 
their former range to the north. Deer and beaver are in- 
creasing in abundance. Caribou may be expected to bene- 
fit from the protection now given to the area which includes 
and adjoins excellent caribou range, including the chief 
haunts of the black mountain caribou (p. 63). Wild fowl 
also occur in large numbers, and excellent breeding-places 
are afforded by the extensive marshes. 

We may confidently look forward to the time when this 
great area will be one of the best-stocked wild-Ufe reserves 
on the North American continent, and a source of pride 
and pleasure to the tired city-dwellers, who visit it for rec- 
reation and to study our wild fife under natural condi- 
tions. 

The Rocky Mountains Park. — This is the oldest of the 
Dominion Parks. It was estabhshed in 1887, two years 
after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It 
embraces an area of 2,751 square miles, and includes some 
of the finest mountain, forest, and lake scenery in the Rocky 
Mountains. On its mountain ranges mountain sheep and 
goats are increasing in numbers. So abundant are the sheep 
that it is no uncommon sight for visitors to see, during the 
sunomer months, a flock of over thirty ewes and lambs on 
one of the main automobile roads which traverse the park. 

In April, 1919, the superintendent reported that on the 
motor road west 375 mountain sheep, 10 goats, and 16 deer 
were seen within ten miles of Banff. The increase of moun- 
tain sheep in this park has been very noticeable, and is in- 
dicated by the following extracts from reports made by the 
wardens early in 1919: 



238 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Counted fifty-two mountain sheep on top of Cuthead Mountain. 
Saw seventy-one sheep and twelve deer near Massive. 
Found sheep in large numbers in unusually fine condition for the time 
of the year. 
Saw big bunch of sheep near the Three Sisters. 

All wild animals are increasing. Black bears occasionally- 
become a nuisance on account of their visits to the garbage- 
cans of the summer residences, and during the winter the 
deer overcome their natural shyness and may be seen con- 
stantly in the streets of Banff. Excellent natural paddocks 
have been constructed near Banff, in which buffalo, wapiti, 
mountain sheep, goat, and deer are confined for the benefit 
of those who are unable to track these animals in their 
natural range in the park. These paddocks at the present 
time* contain 8 buffalo, 10 moose, 27 wapiti, 19 Rocky 
Mountain sheep, and 6 Rocky Mountain goats. It is pro- 
posed to release a number of the wapiti from their commodi- 
ous paddock in order that they may repopulate what for- 
merly constituted the natural range of the wapiti. This 
area, together with Jasper and Waterton Lakes Parks, 
will serve as unrivalled breeding-ground for the big-game 
animals of the Rocky Mountains region, and the surplus 
wild-life population will afford a constant supply of big- 
game and fur-bearing animals for the adjacent unprotected 
regions. This is one of the great advantages of such natural 
reserves. 

Waterton Lakes Park. — This is the third and most south- 
erly of the Dominion Parks in the Rocky Mountain region 
of Alberta. It now includes an area of 423 square miles in 
the southwestern corner of the province, where it is con- 
tiguous to the Glacier National Park, which was created by 
the United States Government, the whole reserved area 
forming a magnificent scenic and wild-life reservation. It 
is a region of impressive mountains and lakes, with deeply 

*June, 1919. 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 239 

carved valleys. The names of certain of these mountains, 
such as Sheep and Black Bear Mountains, testify as to the 
fauna within the park. Rocky Mountain sheep, and black 
and grizzly bear, are comparatively plentiful, and both 
black- and white-tailed deer abound and are increasing. 

The following extracts from the diaries of the wardens, 
early in 1919, furnish evidence of the increase that is taking 
place in this park as a result of protection: 

Saw between eighty and one hundred deer near Horseshoe basin. 

Two hundred deer were within a mile of Cabin all through bad weather. 

Saw seventy-five deer about two miles up Pass Creek. 

While going up Pass Creek I saw seventy goats, about sixty sheep, 
and between fifty and sixty deer. I also saw ten or twelve deer at the 
Superintendent's office; was within two or three rods of them; they are 
quite tame. 

The acting superintendent observes in April, 1919: 

It is noted that elk are making their appearance in this district, and 
Warden Simpson also tells me he has observed moose tracks in here. 

Elk Island Park. — About three miles from Lamont, Al- 
berta, on the main line of the Canadian Northern Railway, 
a small reservation known as Elk Island Park has been 
established for the preservation, originally, of the wapiti or 
elk — but now other members of our wild life are included. 
The area is mostly wooded, the woods in the north end of 
the park being very thick, and suitable for moose and deer; 
in the southern section it is more rolling, less brushy, and 
suitable for buffalo. It contains Island Lake, a beautiful 
sheet of water about 1,040 acres in extent, and studded 
with fourteen wooded islands, on one of which a colony of 
cranes nest. The present estimated population (1919) of 
the larger animals in this park is as follows: 

Buffalo 195 Wapiti 106 

Moose 57 Mule deer Ill 



240 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Duck and other wild fowl are abundant during the 
summer. 

Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta. — In the account that has 
been given of the buffalo (p. 134) this park has already been 
described. The entire area consists of hilly and rolling 
country, with numerous lakes and bluffs, the largest lake 
being Jameson Lake. These lakes furnish splendid breed- 
ing-places for innumerable wild fowl, and when visiting the 
park I have been very strongly impressed with its unusual 
suitability as a wild-life reserve. The fact that most of the 
land is not adapted for agricultural development makes it 
all the more fitted for a reserve. 

In June, 1919, the population of the large animals was as 
follows: 

Buffalo 3,830 Mule deer 420 

Moose 22 Antelope 2 

Wapiti 106 

Antelope Park, at Foremost, in southern Alberta, has 
already been described in the account of the antelope (p. 
71), of which there are now (1919) seventy- two* head in 
the reserve. 

Yoho Park. — Yoho Park comprises an area of about 560 
square miles on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. 
It is divided into almost equal parts by the Kicking Horse 
River. Including as it does some of the most beautiful 
scenery to be found in the Rocky Mountain region, its chief 
value lies in its scenic attractions. But nevertheless it 
contains admirable natural feeding-grounds for the typical 
animals of this region. 

Glacier Park. — Situated amid the snow-capped peaks of 
the Selkirk Mountains, Glacier Park comprises an area of 
about 468 square miles. Lofty mountains, deep valleys 
clothed with dense forests of giant cedar, Douglas fir, hem- 

* In February, 1921, there were about one hundred antelope in the reserve. 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 241 

lock, spruce, and cottonwood, furnish scenery of great 
beauty, and at the same time the wild life enjoys absolute 
protection. 

Revelstoke Park. — In 1914 an area of ninety-five square 
miles north of the city of Revelstoke was set aside as a 
Dominion park. It includes Mount Revelstoke and other 
peaks, and is situated in a region noted for grizzly bear. 
Since its establishment the grouse have increased in abun- 
dance. 

Point Pelee National Park. — Through the efforts of the 
Commission of Conservation and the Advisory Board on 
Wild Life Protection an Order in Council was passed in 
1918 creating Point Pelee, Ontario, as a national park for 
preservation of wild life and particularly the migratory 
birds. In the annual report of the Conmiission for 1918 this 
park, which comprises an area of about twenty-five square 
miles, is described by me as follows (p. 129) : 

"It is a triangular point of land in Essex county, extend- 
ing for about nine miles into Lake Erie and measuring 
about six miles across the base of the point. The peculiari- 
ties of the flora and fauna and the desirability of such a 
reservation are fully discussed in a memorandum submitted 
to the Commission by Mr. P. A. Taverner, ornithologist of 
the Geological Survey, in 1915 and published in the Sixth 
Annual Report of the Commission, pp. 304-307. Not only 
is it the most southerly point of Canada, geographically, 
and in the character of its birds, trees and plants, but it 
constitutes one of the concentration points in the northern 
and southern journeys of our migratory birds. In the 
spring and m the autumn, enormous numbers of birds of 
all species in their migratory journey to and from Canada 
concentrate at this point, and its reservation, therefore, 
would be an important factor in ensuring the protection of 
our migratory birds. The area includes a marsh several 
square miles in extent which forms a favourite resort and 



242 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

breeding place for wild fowl, but excessive shooting has re- 
duced its value as a breeding place. Pine, oaks, red cedar, 
black walnut, and hackberry grow in profusion on the nar- 
row strip of land running down the west side of the point 
and make it a tract of singular beauty to the lover of trees 
and shady groves. Its scenic value, the southern nature 
of its birds and plant life, its importance as a main route 
for migratory birds and the exceptional opportunities it 
affords for the protection and encouragement of wild fowl, 
insectivorous and other birds, all combine to make it an 
ideal area for a national reservation." 

From the foregoing account it will be seen that the Do- 
minion National Parks comprise a total area of 8,917 square 
miles. In this area the wild life is afforded absolute pro- 
tection. It is difficult to express in words what this means 
in relation to the perpetuation of our big game and fur- 
bearing animals, game-birds, wild fowl, and other species of 
our wild life, but the maintenance of such a policy is calcu- 
lated to contribute more than anything else to the conserva- 
tion of our wild life. 

Even in those parks which have been established mainly 
or entirely on account of the magnificent scenic attractions 
within their confines, the wild life will play no small part in 
contributing to the beauty of such scenery, for what forest 
glade is not made more beautiful by the presence of a few 
deer or wapiti, what mountainside is not rendered more 
attractive to the eye by the presence of our magnificent 
mountain sheep or agile goat ? It is the presence of moun- 
tain sheep that gives an added charm to the landscape, and 
the decorative value of our wild life makes a special appeal to 
the tired dwellers of our cities seeking refreshment in the 
wild solitudes of our national and provincial parks. 

Speaking in Ottawa in 1913 on the subject of our national 
parks, His Royal Highness, the Duke of Connaught, said: 
"I do not think that Canada realizes what an asset the na- 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 243 

tion possesses in the parks. These areas have been pre- 
served from the vandal hand of the builder for the use and 
enjojTiient of the public, who may take their holidays there 
and keep close to nature under the most comfortable condi- 
tions, amassing a store of health which will make them 
better able to cope with the strenuous life to which they 
return after their vacation." 



PROVINCIAL RESERVES FOR GAME AND WILD LIFE 

All the provinces of Canada with the exception of Prince 
Edward Island and Nova Scotia have now established game 
reserves for the protection of their game and fur-bearing 
animals and wild life generally. 

New Brunswick Game Reserve. — In New Brunswick such 
excellent conditions existed for the creation of a game re- 
serve in the central portion of the province, and the need 
of such a means of maintaining an area where absolute 
protection might be provided for wild life became so great, 
that the Commission of Conservation actively promoted 
the establishment of such a provincial reserve, and the pro- 
posal received the unanimous approval of the sportsmen 
and the strong support of the New Brunswick Guides' 
Association. 

It is gratifying, therefore, to be able to include the prov- 
ince of New Brunswick among those provinces possessing 
game reserves, for in the spring of 1919 the New Brunswick 
government passed a ''Game Refuge Act," providing for 
the setting aside of a suitable tract of land not exceeding 
400 square miles, ''as a refuge for game animals, birds and 
fish of the Province." In this provincial game reserve the 
law forbids trespassing, hunting, or trapping, and provision 
is made for the protection of the timber and the prohibition 
of fishing. 

The tract of land selected as the New Brunswick Game 



244 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Reserve lies in the northwestern part of the county of 
Northumberland. It has a general width from east to west 
of 16 miles and from north to south it is 27 miles long. 
It embraces approximately 400 square miles of territory, in- 
habited by moose, deer, caribou, and fur-bearing animals. 
We hope that the provision of this reserve will assist in pre- 
venting the disappearance of the caribou from New Bruns- 
wick, an event which undoubtedly will occur within a 
comparatively few years unless much greater protection is 
afforded this animal. 

Within the reserve are a number of lakes, the largest of 
which are Serpentine and Mitchell Lakes, and rivers which 
have their origin in the reserve flow into the Tobique, 
Nipisiguit, and Miramichi Rivers. The protection of the 
headwaters of such important rivers will not be the least of 
the many useful functions this reserve will perform if it is 
effectively administered. 

Quebec 

Gaspesian Forest, Fish, and Game Preserve. — In the cen- 
tral region of the Gaspe Peninsula of Quebec an area of 
about 25,000 square miles was set aside by the provincial 
government in 1905 as a forest reservation, fish and game 
preserve, and public park. It includes a section of heavily 
timbered and hilly territory, in which numerous rivers, run- 
ning north, east, and south into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
have their origin. The regulations regarding the hunting 
and fishing privileges are similar to those in force in the 
Laurentides National Park. 

Trembling Mountain Park. — About seventy miles north- 
west of Montreal lies Trembling Mountain, the highest point 
in the whole Laurentian range in this part of Canada, at- 
taining a height of 2,474 feet above sea-level, and 1,713 feet 
above the lake which lies at its foot. In 1894 this mountain 



1. Port Joli Reserve for Wild 

Geese, Nova Scotia 

2. New Brunswick Game Reserve 

(Provincial reserve; cancelled 
In 1920) 

3. Gaspesian Forest, Fish, and 

Game Reserve, Quebec 

4. Laurentides National Park 

(Provincial), Quebec 

5. Trembling Mountains Park 

(Provincial), Quebec 

6. Algonquin National Park (Pro- 

vincial), Ontario 

7. Quetico Forest and Game Re- 

serve (Provincial), Ontario 

8. Point Pelee National Park (Do- 

minion), Ontario 

9. Rondeau Provincial Park (Pro- 

vincial), Ontario 
10. Bonaventure Island and Perce 
Rock Bird Reserves (Domin- 
ion and Provincial) 




MAP OF 




AE RESERVES IN EASTERN CANADA 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 245 

and adjoining land, to the extent of 14,750 acres, or about 23 
square miles, was set aside as a special forest reserve. The 
mountain is of great interest from a geological standpoint, 
being "sculptured out of a great mass of gneiss, uniform in 
character from base to summit" (F. D. Adams). The In- 
dian name is manitouge sootana, meaning Spirits' or Devils' 
Mountain. Indians state that low rumbling noises fre- 
quently proceed from it, and that it has sometimes been felt 
to shake by those who have accidentally been upon it. 
The Indian belief has established its French and English 
names. 

Laurentides National Park {Plate XVIII). — In 1895 an 
area comprising 2,531 square miles of the wild, forest-clad 
mountainous country north of the city of Quebec, and south- 
east of Lake St. John, was set aside by the provincial gov- 
ernment as "a forest reservation, fish and game preserve, 
public park and pleasure ground." Subsequently the area 
was increased to about 3,700 square miles by the withdrawal 
of further land from sale or settlement. The park contains 
the headwaters of a number of rivers running north and 
south of the mountains — 'Hhe blue Laurentian hills" — which 
attain a height of about three thousand feet. On the west 
it is approached by the Lake St. John Railway, on the south 
by the old Jacques Cartier road, and on the east by the St. 
Urbain road. 

The wild life in the park is abundant, and, owing to the 
protection it receives, it is increasing, in spite of the depre- 
dations of the wolves which, from time to time, prove a 
serious menace, particularly to the caribou. In November 
the caribou congregate in hundreds in the Grand Jardin des 
Ours, the largest of the moss-covered barrens in the park, 
embracing an area of about 100 square miles. Being timid 
animals and harassed by wolves, they apparently migrated 
to the northeast, but a few remained, so I am informed by 
Mr. W. C. T. Hall, the superintendent of the park, and they 



246 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

are slowly increasing in numbers. The wolves appear to 
have migrated westward. Before the park was established 
moose were almost exterminated, but, owing to the increased 
protection given to them, they are now abundant, and it is 
no uncommon experience to see three or four during a day's 
travel in the park. The antlers of these Quebec moose are 
not as large as those of the New Brunswick animals, any 
having a spread of over fifty-five inches being considered a 
large head. Mr. Hall 'informs me that there are a few red 
deer, a profusion of beaver, many black bear, and a full 
complement of the fur-bearing animals. These facts I was 
able to confirm when I visited the northern region of 
the park in 1911. The lakes are teeming with splendid 
trout. 

The policy adopted in administering the hunting priv- 
ileges in the park is an excellent one from the point of view 
of conserving the wild life. On those borders of the park 
that are most open to the inroads of poachers, such as the 
eastern side, moderately sized areas are leased for five-year 
periods to individuals or clubs. The lessee is required to 
appoint a guardian approved by the department, and to have 
the leased area adequately and properly protected. The 
guardian thus becomes a useful servant of both his em- 
ployer and the government. Formerly the game and fish 
on the eastern and western borders of the park suffered se- 
verely from the inroads of poachers, but, owing to the method 
of leasing areas, a series of clubs and private holdings now 
very effectively protect those borders. Not only has the 
game in the leased areas increased, but it has spread into 
the other areas, to the general benefit of the interior of the 
park. 

Some years ago in certain sections of the park bears had 
nearly disappeared, now they are abundant; beaver were 
almost exterminated, now they are a nuisance in certain 
areas. 



PLATE XVIII 




LAC LA PECHE, QUEBEC, SHOWING THE HEADQUARTERS AND 

SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE HUNTING-GROUNDS 

OF THE LAURENTIAN CLUB 




J.ALRKXTiDKS PARK, QUEBEC. ONE OF THE ENTRAXCJOS 

TO THE PARK AT THE JUNCTION OF THE JACQUES 

CARTIER AND CACHE RIVERS 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 247 

Ontario 

Algonquin Park. — This magnificent area of land covers 
2,741 square miles, and was set aside as a provincial park in 
1893. Within this area numerous rivers have their head- 
waters, including the Madawaska and Petawawa, and the 
whole region is densely timbered with pine, spruce, and 
other conifers, and such hardwoods as poplar, birch, and 
maple add the richness of their fall colourings to the scenery. 
Innumerable lakes facilitate travel by canoe, and being 
well stocked with fish they provide food for the traveller. 

The wild life in the park is protected during the whole of 
the year, with the result that such animals as moose, red 
deer, black bear, wolf, lynx, fox, beaver, otter, fisher, mar- 
ten, mink, muskrat, raccoon, skunk, porcupine, ermine, 
squirrels, and lesser animals are very abundant. Wolves 
are killed by the park rangers whenever possible, and a cer- 
tain quantity of fur, principally beaver, mink, otter, etc., 
is taken on government account and sold in Toronto at 
public sale. In 1917 the government realized over $2,400 
from the sale of furs. With a view to supplementing the 
meat supply, 650 deer were killed in 1917, weighing alto- 
gether 66,215 pounds. 

The regulations respecting the park have as their special 
objects the prevention of fire, the maintenance of health, 
the protection of timber and vegetation generally, and also 
of fish and wild life, and the prevention of the pollution of 
all waters in the park. Islands and parcels of land in the 
park are leased for summer cottage sites and resort purposes; 
not more than two acres are leased to one person, but areas 
not exceeding five acres may be leased for summer schools 
and other similar purposes. The leases are for twenty-five 
years and are renewable. Hunting, trapping, or taking 
game or other animals or birds of any kind is absolutely 
prohibited. Wolves, bears, wolverenes, wildcats, foxes, or 



248 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

hawks may be killed by special authority. Fishing is per- 
mitted under license. In so far as hunting is prohibited, the 
policy adopted in this park differs from that carried out in 
the provincial parks of Quebec, where the lessees may hunt 
in the areas leased and protected by them. In the case of 
the Ontario parks the protection is absolute, and controlled 
solely by the provincial government through its own park 
rangers; in the Quebec parks the protection of the game is 
carried out, as we have seen, on a co-operative basis. 

Quetico Forest Reserve. — About ninety miles due west of 
Fort William, in the Rainy River district, an extensive tract 
of land adjoining the State of Minnesota was set aside as a 
provincial park in 1913. The park, known as the Quetico 
Forest Reserve, contains 1,560 square miles. On the south 
it is bounded by the international boundary; the western 
and northern boundaries include the Quetico River and 
Long, Pickerel, and other lakes; the east side by the Thunder 
Bay district. The area includes the territory known as 
Hunters Island. It is well timbered, and a large portion 
of it consists of long, sinuous lakes. Moose are specially 
abundant, and this area will serve as an excellent breeding- 
ground for moose for the territory adjoining the park. The 
protective policy in force in this park is similar to that of 
Algonquin Park; hunting is prohibited absolutely, and fish- 
ing is only permitted under license. 

Rondeau Provincial Park. — On the north shore of Lake 
Erie in Kent County the sandy peninsula which runs out 
from the mainland and forms one side of Rondeau Harbour 
has been reserved as the Rondeau Provincial Park. It con- 
tains about 5,000 acres. About one-half of the park is under 
forest, and wild life, which includes deer and other animals, 
is protected; but muskrats, skunks, and weasels are not 
protected. Recommendations have been made that the 
muskrats in this park be protected, and, in view of their in- 
creasing value as fur-bearers, their inclusion, for a period 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 



249 



of years at least, among the animals enjoying protection is 
worthy of serious consideration. 

Provincial Game Reserves in Manitoba 

In Manitoba the provincial government has established 
game reserves on the Dominion forest reserves; in certain 
cases the entire forest reserves are created game reserves, 
but where the forest reserves are very extensive, as in the 
case of the Riding Mountain and Duck Lake Mountain 
Forest Reserves, only the central portion is set aside for the 
protection of wild life. 

The distribution of the game reserves of Manitoba is 
shown in the accompanying map, and their areas are as 
follows : 

Riding Mountain Game Reserve 216 square miles 



Spruce Woods 
Turtle Mountain 
Duck Mountain 
Peonan Point 
Red Deer Point 
Doghead Point 
Grindstone Point 
Lake St. Martin 
Reindeer Island 
Cedar Lake 
Birch Island 
Lake Winnipegosis 



. 108 

. 993^ 

. 432 
. 72 
. 39 

. 225 
. 42 

. 240 
. 65 
.2,978 
. 57 

. 587 



Altogether these game reserves comprise an area of 5,160 
square miles. In all of them, with the exception of the 
Cedar Lake Reserve, hunting or trapping and the carrying 
of firearms is absolutely prohibited. In the Cedar Lake Re- 
serve, however, only the hunting or killing of wild fowl and 
other game-birds is absolutely prohibited; as this reserve 
comprises some of the most important breeding and feeding 
places for many species of ducks and also geese in the whole 
of western Canada, its value in maintaining an abundant 



250 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

supply of wild fowl in Manitoba cannot be overestimated, 
and the influence of the protection given to the birds in 
this area will by no means be confined to the province. 

If we add to the area of the Cedar Lake Reserve the area 
of the adjoining Lake Winnipegosis Reserve, in which both 
game-birds and mammals are protected, we have a wild- 
fowl reservation of 3,565 square miles in extent, constituting, 
perhaps, the most important protected breeding-grounds for 
ducks and geese on the North American continent. 

The Riding Mountain Game Reserve is one of the most 
important of the provincial reserves in Manitoba, as it con- 
tains the largest number of wapiti or elk to be found in any 
one region in Canada (see p. 28). 

Provincial Game Reserves in Saskatchewan 

When the provincial government of Saskatchewan first 
undertook the wise establishment of game reserves, legisla- 
tion was passed which provided that all Dominion forest 
reserves automatically became game reserves. This sys- 
tem worked admirably until the Dominion Government set 
aside such extensive areas in the province as forest reserves 
that it soon became undesirable to continue such a pohcy. 
The game laws were accordingly amended, and the areas 
set aside as game reserves were revised so as to conform more 
nearly with the existing requirements. Certain of the for- 
mer reserves were reduced in size, some were withdrawn al- 
together, and others were added to the number. 

The following is a list of the Saskatchewan game re- 
serves, with their areas, and their distribution is shown in 
the accompanying map: 

Moose Mountain Game Reserve 150 square miles 

Cypress Hills " " 75 " 

Beaver Hills " " 100 " 

The Pines " " 160 " 



MANITOBA 



Game Reserve 



1. Riding Mountain 

2. Spruce Woods 

3. Turtle Mountain 

4. Ducl£ Mountain 

5. Peonan Point 

6. Red Deer Point 

7. Doghead Point 

8. Grindstone Point 

9. Lake St. Martin 

10. Reindeer Island 

11. Cedar Lalce 

12. Bircli Island 

13. Lake Winnipegosis 



SASKATCHEWAN 

14. Moose Mountain Game Reserve 
15 and 16. Cypress Hills 

17. The Pines 

18. Duck Mountain 

19. Porcupine 

20. Pasquia 

21. Beaver Hills 

22. Fort-a-la-Corne 

23. Big River 

24. Last Moiintain Lake Bird Reserve 

25. Lake Johnston 

26. Quill Lakes 

27. Red Berry Lake 

28. White Bear Lake 

29. Basin and Leonore 

Lakes 

30. Crane Lake 

31. Chaplin Lake 

Dominion Bird Reserves are Nos. 24, 25, 
26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31 




MAP OF GAME ANE 



H-B-Co;, 



jjei^ 







^JhjjUittio K> 






iH.B.Oo- 




710' YBerensB'i"*'' 



^■"■^^wL nit' 




» RESERVES IN MANITOBA AND SASKATCHEWAN 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 251 

Duck Mountain Game Reserve 80 square miles 

Porcupine " " 700 " 

Pasquia " " 1,800 " " 

Fort-a-la-Corne " " 400 " " 

Big River " " 360 " " 

In addition to the above game reserves, which include 
altogether a total area of 3,825 square miles, there are a 
number of reserves set aside chiefly as wild-fow^l reserva- 
tions, whose extent cannot be so accurately defined. These 
are as follows: 

Wascana Game Reserve. — Comprising the waters of Was- 
cana Lake and Creek at Regina. 

The Isle of Bays Reserve. — Situated in Lake Johnston. 

North and South Saskatchewan Rivers Game Reserve. — 
This comprises all the land and lands covered by 
water lying between the right and left banks of the 
North and South Saskatchewan Rivers, respectively, 
between the western boundary of the province and 
the easterly boundary of township 49, range 22, west 
of the second meridian, and all land lying within 200 
yards of either bank of these rivers between the afore- 
mentioned limits. 

Mr. F. Bradshaw, chief game guardian of Saskatchewan, 
has correctly defined what the policy should be with regard 
to game reserves. He says: ''It is not enough, however, 
simply to set aside vast areas for the purpose and then think 
there is nothing further to be done. If the reserves are to 
mean anything more than a mere enactment of the statutes, 
they should be staffed by efficient resident game guardians, 
whose duties should comprise not only the systematic patrol 
of the reserves for the enforcement of the game-laws, but 
also the work of destroying the vermin which preys upon 
the game." 



252 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Game Reserves in Alberta 

In view of the fact that the Dominion Government has 
estabUshed national parks on a very extensive scale in Al- 
berta, the provincial government has not undertaken the 
establishment of game reserves on an extensive scale. 

In 1918, however, the Alberta government established as 
game reserves two of the Dominion Forest Reserves, namely, 
the Cooking Lake Forest Reserve and the Cypress Hills 
Forest Reserve. 

Cooking Lake Forest and Game Reserve. — This reserve is 
situated about twenty miles east of Edmonton. It covers 
an area of 95.5 square miles. Immediately north of and 
adjoining the reserve lies the Dominion Elk Island Park, so 
that the combined area of game reserve is about 112 square 
miles. The country included in this reserve is similar on 
the whole to that of the Elk Island Park. The land is gently 
rolling, the portion to the north of Tawayik Lake being a 
little more hilly than the region to the south. North of this 
lake there is a heavy growth of poplar, which forms excellent 
cover for deer and moose. To the south there is a large 
amount of open country, with occasional areas of aspen. 
Willows grow along the creeks and around the shores of the 
lakes, which are also bordered by considerable areas of hay 
meadow, forming excellent pasturage. The chief lakes are 
Tawayik Lake, Goose Lake, and Flying-shot Lake. All 
these lakes constitute good breeding and feeding places for 
wild fowl. 

Cypress Hills Forest and Game Reserve. — This reserve is 
situated about fifteen miles south of Maple Creek, Sask., 
and about twenty-five miles southeast of Medicine Hat. It 
is composed of several separate blocks; of the total area of 
178.5 square miles, 81 square miles lie in Alberta. It is 
situated on a high plateau with deep river valleys and steep 
slopes. The soil is sandy, and the reserve is partly covered 



PROVINCIAL GAME 
RESERVES 

1. Cooking Lake Game Reserve, 

Alta. 

2. Cypress Hills Game Reserve, 

Alta. 

3. Elk River Reserve, B. C. 

4. Yalakom Game Reserve, B. C. 

5. Strathcona Park, B. C. 

6. Mount Robson Park, B. C. 

7. Clearwater and Smoky Rivers 

Game Reserve, B. C. 

DOMINION PARKS 

8. Jasper Park, Alta. 

9. Rocky Mountains Park, Alta. 

10. Waterhen Lakes Park, Alta. 

11. Elk Island Park, Alta. 

12. Buffalo Park, Wainwright, Alta. 

13. Antelope Reserve, Foremost, 

Alta. 

14. Yoho Park, B. C. 

15. Glacier Park, B. C. 

16. Revelstoke Park, B. C. 

NATIONAL BIRD RESERVES 
IN ALBERTA 

17. Birch Lake 

18. Big Hay Lake 

19. Miquelon Lake 

20. Oliver Lake 

21. Ministik Lake 

22. Pakowki Lake 

23. Many Island Lake (Gaskill and 

Greasewood Lakes) 

24. Buffalo Lake. 

Dominion Reserves are Nos. 8, 9, 
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. 17, 18, 
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 




MAP OF GAME AND ] 




) RESERVES IN ALBERTA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 253 

with white spruce and jack pine. Other portions are cov- 
ered with poplar, and there are quite large areas of open 
grazing land. This reserve appears to be well adapted to 
the preservation of wapiti, which were formerly found there. 

British Columbia 

Comprising as it does one of the finest big-game terri- 
tories on the North American continent, it is a hopeful sign 
for the future conservation of our big-game and wild-life 
resources that the British Columbia Government, during the 
past decade, has taken steps to set aside considerable tracts 
of undeveloped land, consisting largely of mountain and 
forest, as game reserves. The total area comprised in the 
five provincial game reserves — exclusive of the Ashnola re- 
serve for mountain sheep — is nearly 2,867 square miles. 
These reserves, arranged according to the date of their 
reservation, are as follows : 

Elk River Reserve. — This reserve, which was established 
in 1910, comprises an area of 234 square miles, and is situated 
in the southeastern corner of the province, to the west of 
the Elk River. It commences about fifteen miles north of 
Michel, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, and includes 
some of the finest Rocky Mountain goat and sheep coun- 
try in that portion of the province. Grizzly bears and 
wapiti are also to be found in this area of magnificent 
mountain and forest scenery. 

Yalakom Game Reserve. — In 1910 an area of 280 square 
miles, adjoining the North Fork of the Bridge River, was 
set aside as the Yalakom Game Reserve. The south end of 
the reserve is about twenty-three miles northwest of Lil- 
looet. It comprises excellent country for goat, sheep, and 
deer. When the reserve was established these animals were 
plentiful, but since 1912 it has been estimated that they 
have been reduced in numbers by about 80 per cent. 
This reduction is ascribed partly to excessive hunting by 



254 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

the Chilcotin Indians, but chiefly to the depredations of 
cougars, which have increased throughout that region; 
the sheep have been so reduced in numbers as to neces- 
sitate a close season of five years in the Lillooet region. 
A few years ago an endeavour was made to introduce a 
few wapiti into this reserve, but they were Hberated on 
the Bridge River before the reserve was reached. Both 
grizzly and black bears are to be found in fair numbers in 
this reserve, and with adequate protection of the game 
and the destruction of its predatory enemies the reserve 
should constitute one of the finest game areas in the prov- 
ince. 

Strathcona Park. — No more beautiful park exists in Canada 
than the Strathcona Park, which comprises a triangular area 
of 829 square miles in the centre of Vancouver Island. It 
includes magnificent mountains, some of which exceed 7,000 
feet, flecked with glaciers and valleys of towering Douglas 
fir. The natural home of wapiti and deer, it was advisedly 
established as a game reserve in 1914, the Order in Council 
so creating it declaring that ''no person other than park 
rangers, deputy game wardens and constables in the execu- 
tion of their duty shall carry firearms within the limits of 
the said Park, and no person shall carry traps, shoot, trap 
or kill any animal or bird within said limits, except such 
persons as may be hereafter authorized to do so by the 
Provincial Game Warden for the purpose of killing cougar, 
wolves and other vermin." 

Mount Rohson Park. — Immediately west of and adjoining 
the Jasper National Park the British Columbia Government 
created in 1915 this park as a game reserve. It comprises 
an area of 640 square miles, and includes Mount Robson, 
13,100 feet high. A region of high mountains and well- 
forested valleys, it affords an unusually good reserve for big 
game and other mammals and birds of that region, which 
have been described by HoUister and Riley, Anderson, and 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 255 

Tavemer in their respective accounts of the fauna pubHshed 
in the reports of the Alpine Club of Canada. 

The Clearwater and Smoky Rivers Reserve. — This is the 
largest of the reserves in British Columbia, and includes an 
area of almost 885 square miles along the eastern side of the 
south fork of the Fraser River. In the Order in Council of 
September 2, 1912, creating this reserve, it is described as 
follows: ''Commencing at a point at the junction of the 
Clearwater and the South Fork of the Fraser River; thence 
following the summit of the range on the west side of the 
Clearwater River, in a northerly direction to the head- 
waters of the Clearwater River; thence in an easterly di- 
rection following the summit of the range to the head- 
waters of the Little Smoky [Morkill] River; thence still fol- 
lowing the summit of the range on the East side of the 
Little Smoky River, in a southerly direction to the South 
Fork of the Fraser River; thence following the South Fork 
of the Fraser River to the point of commencement." 

Special Reserve for Mountain Sheep. — By Order in Coun- 
cil of November 11, 1913, certain lands in the Similkameen 
district, described as follows, were reserved as grazing 
ground for mountain sheep: ''Commencing at a point being 
the junction of Juniper Creek and the South Fork of Ash- 
nola River, thence north along the east bank of the said 
fork for a distance of one mile; thence in a southerly direc- 
tion to the North Fork of Juniper Creek ; thence in a westerly 
direction following said creek to the point of commence- 
ment." 

Summary of Game Reserves in Canada 

From the foregoing description of the areas set aside in 
Canada by the Dominion and provincial governments for 
the preservation of wild life, excluding the Dominion bird 
sanctuaries in western Canada, which are described in an- 
other chapter (see p. 235), it will be seen that altogether 



256 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

30,304 square miles have been reserved for this purpose; 
that is, a total area exceeding the combined areas of the 
provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. 
The following is a tabular statement of these areas: 



Province 


Provincial 

Government 

Reserves 


Dominion 

Government 

Reserves 


Total 


New Brunswick 

Quebec 


400 sq. miles* 
5,054 " " 
4,310 " " 
5,160 " " 
3,820 " " 

176 " " 
2,867 " " 


25 sq. miles 

7,769 " " 
1,123 " " 


400 sq. miles* 
5,054 " " 
4,335 " " 
5,160 " " 
3,820 " " 
7,945 " " 
3,990 " " 


Ontario 


Manitoba 

Saskatchewan 

Alberta 


British Columbia .... 
Total 






30,704 sq. miles 









* Reserve cancelled in autumn of 1920. 



PROPOSED GAME RESERVE FOR NOVA SCOTIA 

Notwithstanding the existence of a comparatively rich 
native mammalian fauna in this province, where moose, 
deer, bear, and the lesser fur-bearing animals continue to 
exist in spite of the encroachment of settlers and the de- 
struction of the forests by the operations of the lumbermen 
and by fires, no steps have been taken up to the present to 
establish one or more provincial game reserves where ade- 
quate protection from killing would insure a constant sur- 
plus of game and fur-bearing animals to supply the adjacent 
territory and thus prevent species from decreasing to a 
point bordering extinction. 

In Nova Scotia there are excellent tracts of land that 
might be set aside as game reserves, and are unsuitable for 
agriculture. The area best adapted for such a reserve, in 
my opinion, would be the tract of land in the middle of the 
western portion of the province which includes the region 
where the counties of Digby, Yarmouth, Shelburne, Queens, 



RESERVES FOR WILD LIFE IN CANADA 257 

and Annapolis adjoin each other, and extending eastward 
it would include the adjacent portions of the last two coun- 
ties. From my personal knowledge of this region, which 
comprises burnt-over rocky barrens and stretches of hard- 
wood and coniferous trees, and includes numerous lakes and 
the headwaters of many fine rivers, I feel convinced that the 
game and fur-bearing animals would respond quickly to the 
protection that such a reservation would afford. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE BY 
THE DOMINION GOVERNMENT 

Owing to the fact that the protection of game and wild 
Hfe in the various provinces has been undertaken by the re- 
spective provincial governments, the Dominion Govern- 
ment, with certain exceptions that will be mentioned, has 
confined its jurisdiction to the protection of the game and 
fur-bearing animals and other wild life in the Northwest 
Territories and the Yukon Territory. The exceptions are 
the protection of migratory birds under the Migratory 
Birds Convention, and the protection of the wild life in the 
national parks. 

The Dominion legislation governing the protection of 
game and wild life comprises the Northwest Game Act, the 
Yukon Game Ordinance, the Migratory Birds Convention 
Act, and the Dominion Parks Act. The legislation is ad- 
ministered by the Minister of the Interior, and the Com- 
missioner of Dominion Parks is charged with the enforce- 
ment of the provisions of these enactments, with the excep- 
tion of the Yukon Game Ordinance, which comes under the 
jurisdiction of the Commissioner of the Yukon. 

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES 

The unorganized Northwest Territories are rich in wild 
life, as we have already shown, and the fur-bearing animals 
of the north constitute at the present time the most valu- 
able natural resource that we are able to utilize in these 
vast territories. Throughout those subarctic and arctic 
regions our fur-bearing animals find an environment emi- 
nently suited to them, and to the production of furs of the 
highest grade. The fur trade of the north is not only the 

258 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 259 

chief occupation of that immense area, but it is the only 
means of liveHhood and existence of the population. Un- 
less the fur trade is maintained an enormous section of the 
Dominion would be rendered unproductive, and the native 
inhabitants would either starve to death or become a charge 
on the government. Such is the significance of our northern 
fur resources, as I have pointed out in another chapter. 
The vital importance also of the barren-ground caribou 
and musk-ox as sources of food and clothing for the people 
of the north has already been emphasized, but cannot be 
reiterated too often. 

The protection of the game and fur-bearing animals and 
other wild hfe in the Northwest Territories is governed by 
the Northwest Game Act, which underwent a complete re- 
vision in 1917. For a number of years the inadequacy of 
the provisions of the former statute and the necessity of 
more effectual enforcement had become increasingly ap- 
parent to those in touch with the conditions of the wild 
hfe of the north, and familiar with the factors tending to 
affect adversely its conservation. In 1914 I prepared for the 
Commission of Conservation a memorandum regarding the 
necessity of amending the Northwest Game Act, 1906, 
having particular reference to the greater protection of the 
musk-ox and barren-ground caribou. A second memoran- 
dum on this subject was prepared in 1916, and, as a result 
of further recommendations made, the Commission at its 
annual meeting that year* passed a resolution urging the 
amendment of the Northwest Game Act, 1906, with a view 
to meeting the changed conditions and to securing adequate 
protection to the game and fur-bearing animals of the north, 
particularly on account of their economic importance. Soon 
after the creation of the Advisory Board on Wild Life Pro- 
tection the revision of this act was undertaken, and a 

* Seventh Annual Report, Commission of Conservation, 1916, pp. 32-38 and 
218. 



260 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

new act was drafted. This was passed by Parliament 
in 1917. 

The most important feature of the new act and regula- 
tions passed thereunder is the licensing of the fur trade. 
Prior to the enactment of this legislation the fur resources 
of the Northwest Territories were open to the unrestricted 
exploitation of all comers, with the result that excessive 
destruction was taking place, especially by certain types of 
foreign trappers, who have no interest, such as that pos- 
sessed by the well-known fur companies, in the future of 
the country. The extensive use of poison and the com- 
plete ''cleaning up" of territory were methods that should 
be immediately checked. The only means of controlling 
the fur industry was by the institution of a license system, 
and the regulations under the Northwest Game Act provide 
that no person may hunt, trap, trade, or traffic in the North- 
west Territories without first securing a license to do so. 
Native-born Indians, Eskimos, or half-breeds who are bona 
Ude residents are not required, however, to obtain licenses. 
The new policy will also enable us to obtain reliable statis- 
tics of the fur trade in the Northwest Territories; hitherto 
it has been impossible to obtain such necessary informa- 
tion. The possession and use of poison are prohibited. The 
killing of female hoofed animals, such as caribou, moose, 
mountain sheep, and mountain goat, or the young at foot, 
is prohibited. 

A Proposal for the National Ownership of the 
Fur Resources of the Northwest Territories 

In an address before the Commission of Conservation in 
1917 on the conservation of the fur resources of northern 
Canada,* I emphasized the fact that the fur trade of the 
Northwest Territories is not only the chief occupation of 
that immense area, but that it is the only means of liveli- 
hood and existence of the population, and that, unless the 

* Eighth Annual Report, Commission of Conservation, 1917, pp. 119-122. 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 261 

fur trade is maintained, an enormous part of the Dominion 
would be rendered unproductive and the native inhabitants 
would either starve to death or become a charge on the gov- 
ernment. That, in brief, is the significance of the problem. 
It was also pointed out that the Danish Government ad- 
ministers the fur trade of Greenland as a government 
monojK)ly. State officers trade with the natives at so-called 
"bu3dng places." In this manner and through their regu- 
lations regarding trapping, it is possible to exercise an amount 
of control that will insure the conservation of the fur re- 
sources of Greenland to a far greater extent than is other- 
wise possible. An important feature of this policy is also 
the fact that such control protects the natives from the evil 
effects that result from unrestricted intercourse with out- 
side traders. 

A careful consideration of the problem of our northern 
fur resources and the position of the native population in 
relation to the exploitation of such resources serves to im- 
press one with the fact that the taking over and adminis- 
tration by the Dominion Government of the fur trade of 
the Northwest Territories would be most desirable from all 
points of view. The following proposal is therefore made. 
The Dominion Government should take over the entire 
control and exploitation of the fur trade and wild life re- 
sources of the Northwest Territories by enacting the neces- 
sary legislation. This would involve the purchase of such 
rights as the Hudson's Bay Company have in the Northwest 
Territories. In order to administer the monopoly it would 
be necessary to establish certain government posts, such as 
those now maintained by the Hudson's Bay Company. This 
would be a great advantage in securing proper and adequate 
government administration in the Northwest Territories, 
where the need of government agents to take charge of the 
affairs of the Indians, the enforcement of the law, the collec- 
tion of customs, and oversight of other government activities 



262 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

in these territories is becoming increasingly felt, and will 
undoubtedly become greater with their development. 
These government agents would perform the work now car- 
ried on by the officers of the fur companies and the duties 
of magistrates, etc. They would be responsible for the 
proper conduct of the fur trade, the care of the natives, and 
the enforcement of law. 

If such a policy were adopted it would accomplish the 
following ends. A source of revenue would be created of no 
small value, even after the expenses of administration were 
paid, and it is proper that the profits accruing from the ex- 
ploitation of the fur resources of these territories should go 
into the national exchequer. It would be the most effective 
method of conserving the fur resources and wild life of the 
Northwest Territories, as the enforcement of the law and 
the adoption of any necessary restrictive measures could be 
directly supervised. It would afford a means of attending 
to the requirements of the natives who stand in need of 
more immediate supervision, which is difficult to give at the 
present time. The natives, both Indian and Eskimo, would 
be protected to a greater degree than at present from the 
influence and exploitation of unscrupulous traders, which 
would be an advantage from the standpoint of morals and 
health. 

The nationalization of such natural resources as forests 
has proved in Europe to be the most successful means of 
conserving such resources, and at the same time this policy 
has furnished a valuable source of national revenue. There 
is no good reason why such a policy should not be adopted 
in the case of our northern fur resources. The thoughtful 
consideration of this purpose is therefore respectfully urged. 

THE YUKON TERRITORY 

The game and fur-bearing animals of the Yukon Terri- 
tory are protected under the Yukon Game Ordinance, which 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 263 

is administered by the Commissioner of the Yukon. Its 
enforcement is largely in the hands of the members of the 
Royal Northwest Mounted PoUce,* who are ex officio game 
wardens. The close seasons may be changed by a resolu- 
tion of the Territorial Council. 

The ordinance prohibits the use of poison. In order to 
prevent waste of meat a heavy penalty is provided should 
anyone, killing game, fail to use the meat personally for 
food, or cause it to be used for food, or to be sold within 
the territory for that purpose. Traders who purchase meat 
of game animals are required to keep full data regarding 
their purchases. 

Owing to the great difficulty of taking supplies into cer- 
tain sections of the territory, the Commissioner may set 
aside any portion of it from the operation of the ordinance 
for such period of time as he may deem desirable, in order 
to provide sustenance for isolated camps, and when any 
locality is so set aside the Commissioner may license one or 
more hunters to hunt for such district under certain re- 
strictions. One of the chief reasons for the disappearance 
of game from many regions has been the fact that mining 
and other camps have subsisted wholly, or almost wholly, 
on the game in the surrounding district. This policy has 
been carried out in regions where the bringing in of other 
supplies is possible. The power of suspending the opera- 
tion of the game law in exceptional cases is one that should 
be exercised with the greatest caution, and its abuse should 
be safeguarded by every possible means. 

The killing of game by Indians in the Yukon, particularly 
moose, for the purposes of sale to traders, is a practice that 
should be suppressed immediately. It is unwarranted; it 
incites a class of men, all too eager to kill everything in 
sight, to kill to the limit; and its continuance will abso- 
lutely deplete the supply of moose and other game animals. 

* Now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. 



264 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Apart from the fact that certain parts of the Yukon Terri- 
tory contain some of the finest moose in the Dominion, the 
Territory cannot afford to have its game resources unneces- 
sarily wiped out in such a manner. The situation demands 
immediate and stern action before it is too late to prevent 
the inevitable consequences. 

THE MIGRATORY BIRDS CONVENTION 

For many years the numbers of our migratory birds, such 
as ducks, geese, insectivorous birds, and shore-birds, which 
class includes the plovers, sandpipers, snipe, woodcock, etc., 
have been decreasing. This decrease is a matter of com- 
mon knowledge and observation throughout the Dominion. 
Certain of these migratory birds, such as the Eskimo curlew, 
which formerly existed in enormous numbers and was killed 
for the market, the Labrador duck, the passenger pigeon, 
and the great auk have now become extinct. Others, such 
as the whooping crane and the wood duck, the most beau- 
tiful of our native ducks, have become so reduced in num- 
bers as to render their continued existence without further 
protection a matter of doubt. 

From a national standpoint the prospect of this continued 
decrease involved serious economic consideration. Leaving 
out of account the value from an aesthetic point of view of 
this portion of our Canadian wild life, great as that is, and 
regarding it as an economic asset to the country, we were 
faced with the gradual reduction of our migratory wild 
fowl, whose value as food and as means of securing recreation 
is inestimable, and of our insectivorous birds, which are of 
even greater importance to the welfare of our agricultural 
interests. 

Insectivorous birds constitute one of the chief natural 
agencies controlling insect pests affecting field crops, or- 
chards, and forests. In field crops alone the annual loss 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 265 

in Canada due to the depredations of insect pests is, on a 
conservative estimate, not less than $125,000,000. And, 
with the development of the country, the damage caused 
by insect pests is increasing, while the numbers of insec- 
tivorous birds have been decreasing. 

The chief causes of this decrease in the numbers of our 
migratory birds are as follows: Canada constitutes the chief 
breeding-place for the greater number of these birds. With 
the settlement of the country the breeding-places of many 
species have been destroyed. The clearing of the land has 
involved the clearing of the nesting-sites of insectivorous 
birds; the draining of marshy areas and the settlement of 
the prairies have driven wild fowl from their former breed- 
ing and feeding places. Such causes are, therefore, unavoid- 
able to a large extent. On the other hand, while many of 
the provinces have excellent laws governing the protection 
of game, non-game, and insectivorous birds, it has not always 
been possible to give these birds adequate protection. The 
increase in the number of persons who carry guns, and the 
improvement of modern sporting-guns have had their effect 
on the abundance of wild fowl. 

Even with the strictest enforcement of protective laws 
Canadians would have been unable to prevent the con- 
tinued decrease of migratory birds unless the requisite pro- 
tection were given to such birds during the time that they 
are in United States territory. In other words, our migra- 
tory birds cannot be adequately protected from continued 
decrease without co-operative protection in Canada and the 
United States. 

It is a well-known fact that while some of the States of the 
Union had excellent laws, which they enforced, others failed 
to protect their birds. In some States the shooting of wild 
fowl in the spring was permitted; this involved the killing 
of birds, usually mated at that time of the year, on their 
way to their breeding-grounds in the north. This discour- 



266 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

aged many Canadians, who naturally asked why they should 
protect their wild fowl for the market gunners of the south. 
The existence of such market gunners, who annually killed 
enormous quantities of Canadian-bred ducks and geese for 
the markets of the big cities in the United States, consti- 
tuted one of the greatest causes of reduction and one of the 
chief obstacles to any rational attempt to prevent such 
reduction and to maintain our stock of wild fowl. Not 
only were game-birds affected, but insectivorous birds were 
likewise killed by thousands during their winter sojourn in 
the south; this destruction has been particularly serious in 
the case of the robin, one of our important cutworm de- 
stroyers. 

As a result of the efforts of sportsmen, game-protective 
associations and other organizations interested in the con- 
servation of the wild fowl and other migratory birds in the 
United States, the Federal Migratory Bird Law was enacted 
in 1913 for the purpose of securing more adequate protec- 
tion for migratory birds which, by reason of their migra- 
tory habits, could not be successfully protected by the efforts 
of individual States so long as other States were derelict in 
the matter. The objects of the Federal regulations were to 
reduce the open seasons, which varied greatly in different 
States; to secure a more uniform open season, not exceed- 
ing three and one-half months, fixed in accordance with 
local conditions, so that the sportsmen would have shoot- 
ing at the best time of the year; and to prevent the shoot- 
ing of migratory birds in the spring. A close season for a 
period of years was given to certain birds, particularly 
shore-birds, and the shooting of insectivorous birds was en- 
tirely forbidden. The majority of the States amended their 
laws to conform with the Federal regulations, and, although 
certain States, in which the influence of the market hunter 
and gunners with no thought of the future appeared to pre- 
dominate, objected to Federal interference, the outcome of 



PLATE XIX 











Photographs by R. M. Anderson 

WESTERN BIRD RESERVES 

1. Flock of Bonaparte's Gulls on middle Miquelon Lake, Alberta 

2. Whistling Swans rising from water on Lake Johnstone, Saskatchewan 

3. Southwest end of Ministik Lake, Alberta 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 267 

this increased protection and elimination of spring shooting 
has been a noticeable increase in the numbers of wild fowl. 
This increase has also been observed by Canadian sportsmen. 

The results of the Federal Migratory Bird Law in the 
United States indicated the possibilities and served to em- 
phasize strongly the need of international co-operation be- 
tween Canada and the United States in the protection of 
those species of birds which migrate from one country to the 
other. 

The importance of international co-operation in this mat- 
ter had been realized for a number of years, but no official 
action was taken until the United States Senate adopted a 
resolution, on July 7, 1913, requesting the President to pro- 
pose to the governments of other countries the negotiation 
of a convention for the protection of migratory birds. This 
resolution was not acted upon until the following year. In 
the meantime several organizations and individuals in 
Canada and the United States took steps to further the 
proposal for international action. On December 10, 1913, 
at the instance of the Department of Colonization, Mines, 
and Fisheries of the Province of Quebec, Mr. H. R. Charl- 
ton, of Montreal, introduced the subject of the proposed 
convention at the annual meeting of the North American 
Fish and Game Protective Association at Ottawa, and 
moved the following resolution, which was adopted: 

That the executive committee be requested to place itself in communi- 
cation with the various provincial governments of Canada to urge upon 
them the importance of soliciting the good offices of the Dominion Gov- 
ernment in obtaining the negotiation of a convention or treaty between 
Great Britain and the United States, looking to the more efficient pro- 
tection of migratory birds, now threatened with extinction, and following 
as much as possible the lines laid down in the accompanying suggested 
draft. 

In January, 1914, the question of international co-operation 
was informally discussed by the writer with the Biological 



268 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
Later in the same month the subject was discussed in 
Ottawa at the annual meeting of the Commission of Con- 
servation, and the following resolution was passed by the 
commission : 

Resolved, That the provincial governments of Canada be urged to 
solicit the good offices of the Dominion Government in obtaining the 
negotiation of a convention for a treaty between Great Britain and the 
United States, for the purpose of securing more effective protection for 
the birds which pass from one country to another. 

The Dominion Parks Branch of the Department of the 
Interior also interested itself in furthering this measure. 

In the following month (February, 1914) the United States 
Government submitted to the Canadian Government for 
its consideration the draft of a convention between Great 
Britain and the United States for the protection of migra- 
tory birds in the United States and Canada. The draft of 
the proposed convention was submitted to the several pro- 
vincial governments for their views, as the question was 
of provincial concern. The provincial governments unani- 
mously approved of the principle of the convention. As 
objections that were not considered to be insuperable were 
raised by only two of the provinces, and, as the Departments 
of Agriculture and of the Interior, and the Commission of 
Conservation strongly concurred in the opinion that the 
protection of these birds, as provided under the proposed 
convention, particularly on economic grounds, was most 
desirable, an Order in Council was passed on May 31, 1915, 
stating that the Canadian Government was favourably dis- 
posed to the conclusion of the proposed treaty. With a 
view to securing the settlement of our objections to certain 
provisions of the treaty further negotiations were under- 
taken in Washington early in 1916, as a result of which all 
the objections raised were completely met, with the excep- 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 269 

tion of one that would have affected the vital principle of 
the proposed treaty, namely, the elimination of spring 
shooting. Accordingly, a revised draft convention embody- 
ing the changes which had been made to meet the objec- 
tions raised by the provincial governments, together with 
certain other improvements, was prepared and submitted 
to the Canadian Government in March, 1916. After further 
consideration of this revised draft by the government an 
Order in Council was passed on June 29, 1916, stating that 
"Canada is prepared to agree to the conclusion of the con- 
vention" conditional to the adoption of certain other amend- 
ments which had been agreed to as a result of informal 
negotiations. 

The treaty was signed in Washington on August 16, 1916, 
by His Majesty's Ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring-Rice, 
G. C. V. 0., and the Secretary of State of the United States, 
Mr. Robert Lansing. On the unanimous vote of the Com- 
mittee on Foreign Relations it was ratified by the Senate 
of the United States on August 29, 1916. 

The full text of the convention is set forth in the schedule 
of the Migratory Birds Convention Act. 

In the fulfilment of the agreement made in Article VIII 
of the convention the Migratory Birds Convention Act was 
passed at the next session of Parliament following its rati- 
fication, and was assented to on August 29, 1917. 

It will be seen that the most important provision in the 
convention is Article II, providing for: (1) a close season 
on migratory game-birds from March 10 to September 1, 
with the exception given; (2) an open season of three and 
one-half months; and (3) a close season throughout the year 
on insectivorous birds. The open season of three and one- 
half months may be fixed anywhere between September 1 
and March 10, to suit the local conditions. The restriction 
of the open season on wild fowl to three and one-half months 
will involve in some provinces a shortening of the present 



270 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

open season, but in view of the objects of the treaty and the 
experience that such restriction in the United States is 
increasing the supply of birds, this change will undoubtedly 
meet with the support of sportsmen desirous of preventing 
the continued decrease in the numbers of wild fowl. 

The conclusion of this convention constitutes the most 
important and far-reaching measure ever taken in the his- 
tory of bird protection. Some years ago efforts were made 
to secure the international protection of birds in Europe, 
but, while the general movement towards better protection 
for insectivorous birds was thereby furthered, the requisite 
co-operation on the part of all the countries interested was 
hampered by inactivity on the part of some of the govern- 
ments and a considerable diversity of interests and opinion. 
Fortunately many of these difficulties do not exist in North 
America, and in the United States and Canada there is an 
ever-growing sentiment in favour of preserving what is left 
of our former wealth of wild life which has been so seriously 
depleted by improvidence in the past. This international 
measure will affect over one thousand species and sub- 
species of birds from the Gulf of Mexico to the North Pole, 
and we may confidently look forward not merely to a cessa- 
tion of the decrease but to an increase of our migratory 
birds, which are so valuable a national asset. 

The following is the text of the Migratory Birds Con- 
vention : 

Whereas many species of birds in the course of their annual migrations 
traverse certain parts of the Dominion of Canada and the United States; 
and 

Whereas many of these species are of great value as a source of food 
or in destroying insects which are injurious to forests and forage plants 
on the public domain, as well as to agricultural crops, in both Canada 
and the United States, but are nevertheless in danger of extermination 
through lack of adequate protection during the nesting season or while 
on their way to and from their breeding grounds; 

His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 271 

Ireland and of the British Dominions Beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, 
and the United States of America, being desirous of saving from indis- 
criminate slaughter and of insuring the preservation of such migratory 
birds as are either useful to man or are harmless, have resolved to adopt 
some uniform system of protection which shall effectively accomplish 
such objects, and to the end of concluding a convention for this purpose 
have appointed as their respective plenipotentiaries: 

His Britannic Majesty, the Right Honourable Sir Cecil Arthur Spring- 
Rice, G.C.V.O., K.C.M.G., etc.. His Majesty's ambassador extraordinary 
and plenipotentiary at Washington; and 

The President of the United States of America, Robert Lansing, Secre- 
tary of State of the United States; 

Who, after having communicated to each other their respective full 
powers which were found to be in due and proper form, have agreed to 
and adopted the following articles: — 

Article I 

The High Contracting Powers declare that the migratory birds in- 
cluded in the terms of this Convention shall be as follows: — 

1. Migratory Game Birds: — 

(a) Anatidse or waterfowl, including brant, wild ducks, geese, and 
swans. 

(b) Gruida? or cranes, including little brown, sandhill, and whooping 
cranes. 

(c) Rallidse or rails, including coots, gallinules and sora and other rails. 

(d) Limicolse or shorebirds, including avocets, curlew, dowitchers, god- 
wits, knots, oyster catchers, phalaropes, plovers, sandpipers, snipe, stilts, 
surf birds, turnstones, willet, woodcock, and yellowlegs. 

(e) Columbidae or pigeons, including doves and wild pigeons. 

2. Migratory Insectivorous Birds: Bobolinks, catbirds, chickadees, 
cuckoos, flickers, flycatchers, grosbeaks, humming birds, kinglets, mar- 
tins, meadowlarks, nighthawks or bull bats, nut-hatches, orioles, robins, 
shrikes, swaUows, swifts, tanagers, titmice, thrushes, vireos, warblers, 
waxwings, whippoorwills, woodpeckers, and wi-ens, and all other perch- 
ing birds which feed entirely or chiefly on insects. 

3. Other Migratory Nongame Birds: Auks, auklets, bitterns, fulmars, 
gannets, grebes, guillemots, gulls, herons, jaegers, loons, murres, petrels, 
puffins, shearwaters, and terns. 

Article II 
The High Contracting Powers agree that, as an effective means of 
preserving migratory birds, there shall be established the following close 



272 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

seasons during which no hunting shall be done except for scientific or 
propagating purposes under permits issued by proper authorities. 

1. The close season on migratory game birds shall be between 10th 
March and 1st September, except that the close of the season on the 
limicolae or shorebirds in the Maritime Provinces of Canada and in those 
States of the United States bordering on the Atlantic Ocean which are 
situated wholly or in part north of Chesapeake Bay shall be between 
1st February and 15th August, and that Indians may take at any time 
scoters for food but not for sale. The season for hunting shall be further 
restricted to such period not exceeding three and one-half months as the 
High Contracting Powers may severally deem appropriate and define by 
law or regulation. 

2. The close season on migratory insectivorous birds shall continue 
throughout the year. 

3. The close season on other migratory nongame birds shall continue 
throughout the year, except that Eskimos and Indians may take at any 
season auks, auklets, guillemots, murres and puffins, and their eggs for 
food and their skins for clothing, but the birds and eggs so taken shall 
not be sold or offered for sale. 

Article III 

The High Contracting Powers agree that during the period of ten 
years next following the going into effect of this Convention, there shall 
be a continuous close season on the following migratory game birds, 
to wit: 

Band-tailed pigeons, little brown, sandhill and whooping cranes, swans, 
curlew and all shorebirds (except the black-breasted and golden plover, 
Wilson or jack snipe, woodcock, and the greater and lesser yellowlegs) ; 
provided that during such ten years the close seasons on cranes, swans 
and curlew in the province of British Columbia shall be made by the 
proper authorities of that province within the general dates and limita- 
tions elsewhere prescribed in this Convention for the respective groups 
to which these birds belong. 

Article IV 

The High Contracting Powers agree that special protection shall be 
given the wood-duck and the eider-duck either (1) by a close season 
extending over a period of at least five years, or (2) by the establishment 
of refuges, or (3) by such other regulations as may be deemed appropriate. 

Article V 
The taking of nests or eggs of migratory game or insectivorous or 
nongame birds shall be prohibited, except for scientific or propagating 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 273 

purposes under such laws or regulations as the High Contracting Powers 
may severally deem appropriate. 

Akticle VI 

The High Contracting Powers agree that the shipment or export of 
migratory birds or their eggs from any State or Province, during the 
continuance of the close season in such State or Province, shall be pro- 
hibited except for scientific or propagating purposes, and the interna- 
tional traffic in any birds or eggs at such time captured, killed, taken, or 
shipped at any time contrary to the laws of the State or Province in which 
the same were captured, killed, taken, or shipped shall be likewise pro- 
hibited. Every package containing migratory birds or any parts thereof 
or any eggs of migratory birds transported, or offered for transportation 
from the Dominion of Canada into the United States or from the United 
States into the Dominion of Canada, shall have the name and address 
of the shipper and an accurate statement of the contents clearly marked 
on the outside of such package. 

Article VII 

Permits to kill any of the above-named birds which, under extraor- 
dinary conditions, may become seriously injurious to the agricultural or 
other interests in any particular community, may be issued by the proper 
authorities of the High Contracting Powers under suitable regulations 
prescribed therefor by them respectively, but such permits shall lapse or 
may be cancelled, at any time when, in the opinion of said authorities, 
the particular exigency has passed, and no birds killed under this article 
shall be shipped, sold, or offered for sale. 

Article VIII 

The High Contracting Powers agree themselves to take, or propose to 
their respective appropriate law-making bodies, the necessary measures 
for insuring the execution of the present Convention. 

Article IX 

The present Convention shall be ratified by His Britannic Majesty 
and by the President of the United States of America, by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate thereof. The ratifications shall be ex- 
changed at Washington as soon as possible and the Convention shall 
take effect on the date of the exchange of the ratifications. It shall re- 
main in force for fifteen years, and in the event of neither of the High 



274 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Contracting Powers having given notification, twelve months before the 
expiration of said period of fifteen years, of its intention of terminating 
its operation, the Convention shall continue to remain in force for one 
year and so on from year to year. 

In faith whereof, the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the 
present Convention in duplicate and have hereunto aflaxed their seals. 
Done at Washington this sixteenth day of August, 1916. 

(L.S.) Cecil Spring-Rice. 
(L.S.) Robert Lansing. 

The regulations under the Migratory Birds Convention 
Act were passed by Order in Council on April 23, 1918, 
and the following open seasons for migratory game-birds 
in Canada were provided under Section 2 of these regula- 
tions : 





Ducks, Geese, 
Brant, and Rails 


Black-breasted 
and Golden 
Plover, and 
Greater and 

Lesser Yellow- 
legs 


Woodcock and 

Wilson or Jack 

Snipe 


Prince Edward Island. 


Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 15-Dec. 31 
Sept. 15-Dec. 14 

Sept. 1-Dec. 14 

Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 15-Nov. 30 
Sept. 15-Dec. 31 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 

Sept. 15-Dec. 31 

Oct. 1-Jan. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 


Aug. 15-Nov. 30 
Aug. 15-Nov. 30 
Aug. 15-Nov. 30 

Sept. 1-Dec. 14 

Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 15-Nov. 30 
Sept. 15-Dec. 31 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 

Sept. 15-Dec. 31 

Oct. 1-Jan. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 


Sept. 15-Nov. 30 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 15-Nov. 30 
f Aug. 15-Nov. 30 \ 
I Sept. 1-Dec. 14 J 
Oct. 15-Nov. 14 
Sept. 15-Nov. 30 
Sept. 15-Dec. 31 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 

Sept. 15-Dec. 31 

Oct. 1-Jan. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 
Sept. 1-Dec. 14 


New Brunswick 

Quebec 


Ontario 




Saskatciiewan 

Alberta 


BritishColumbia, north 
British Columbia, 


British Columbia, 
southwest 


Northwest Territories. 
Yukon 





Most of the provinces have now amended their game laws 
in order that the sections relating to the protection of migra- 
tory birds may conform to the provisions of the Convention. 
By so doing it will be possible for the provincial govern- 
ments to enforce the provisions of the Convention within 
their respective territories. 



PROTECTION OF GAME AND WILD LIFE 275 

DOMINION PARKS ACT 

As one of the main objects of the Canadian National 
Parks is to conserve the native mammals and birds, strin- 
gent regulations are in force to prevent the hunting, cap- 
ture, destruction, or molestation in any way of the wild life 
in the national parks, which have been described in another 
chapter (pp. 235-243). 

These regulations make it illegal to: 

1. Chase, harass or pursue, hunt, shoot at, trap, take, 

wound, kill, capture, or destroy any game — which 
term includes all mammals or birds within any 
national park. 

2. Have in possession, except as specially provided, any 

game, or parts thereof, killed or procured within a 
national park. 

3. Use poison, poisonous substances, or gas for taking, 

injuring, or destroying game in a national park. 

4. Sell within a national park guns or other weapons used 

for the destruction of game without a permit. 

5. Carry guns or firearms of any description within a 

national park, except by an officer of the park, un- 
less such guns shall have been sealed by the super- 
intendent of the park or a duly authorized official. 
Any unsealed gun or firearm found in a national 
park is subject to forfeiture. 

6. Allow dogs to run unleashed in a national park. 

In addition, the regulations provide for the following: 

1. The forfeiture of the outfits of all persons convicted of 
illegally hunting or killing any game or having 
illegal possession of game within a national park. 
(The significance of this penalty was realized by a 
party of hunters who were proved a few years ago 



276 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

to have killed game within the borders of one of 
the national parks, and their outfits, which in- 
cluded a considerable number of pack-horses, were 
confiscated.) 

2. The search by a game warden of outfits, premises, tents, 

vehicles, or vessels for poison. 

3. The capture or destruction by game wardens or officers 

under the parks administration of predatory or 
dangerous animals or noxious birds. 

4. The capture or killing under proper authority of game 

for scientific or propagating purposes. 

5. The destruction of cats, which are not allowed within 

the confines of a national park. 

6. The registration by all guides travelling through a 

national park of full details regarding any hunting 
party travelling through such a park, and registra- 
tion by the persons hunting. Such registration in- 
cludes the names and addresses, date of departure 
and proposed duration of stay in the park, list of 
firearms carried and route to be travelled. (This 
requirement is enforced, owing to the fact that 
many parties of hunters choose as the point of de- 
parture such places as Banff and Jasper, where 
they outfit for hunting-grounds outside the bound- 
aries of such national parks.) 

It is satisfactory to be able to record that the foregoing 
regulations are very strictly enforced in the national parks, 
to the great benefit of the wild life within the parks. 



CHAPTER XII 
A REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 

All the provinces of Canada have undertaken the pro- 
tection of game and wild life, and have passed legislation 
for that purpose. In most cases the game laws are framed 
wisely and enforced effectively; in certain cases the ad- 
ministration of the game laws is not in accordance with the 
needs of the situation. Too often in the past political or 
other considerations have influenced the selection of game 
officers, and have prevented the impartial administration 
of game laws; there has been too great a desire to protect 
local politics rather than local game, with a disastrous effect 
on the latter. The protection of game and wild life de- 
mands the appointment of qualified officers and the admin- 
istration of game laws without fear or favour. The co- 
existence of game with large populations in older countries, 
such as England, Scotland, and other European countries, 
has been due, not only to propagation of game, but to im- 
partial administration of game laws and their strict ob- 
servance by all. 

Our game resources will never benefit to the extent that 
is necessary, and is intended by our game laws, until the 
administration of all game laws is completely freed from 
political influence or interference, and there are sufficient 
quaUfied and conscientious game wardens to meet the re- 
quirements of all parts of the Dominion. Fortunately, there 
has been marked and encouraging progress in this direction 
in recent years, and, as the needs are more widely appre- 
ciated, we may expect in Canada game laws and a standard 
of administration that will not be surpassed in any other 

277 



278 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

country. With game and wild-life resources unequalled by 
any other country in the world, it is surely incumbent upon 
us to secure and maintain the highest standard in wise pro- 
tective policies and their enforcement. Always it should be 
remembered that the primary object of game legislation is 
to protect the interests of the game and not those of the 
persons who desire to exploit such resources. Of all our 
resources, the game, fur-bearing, and other animals are most 
easily destroyed, and they cannot be restored under modern 
conditions; it is necessary therefore that special care should 
be devoted to their wise protection, and that the issuing of 
hunting-licenses and the collection of fees should not con- 
stitute the main functions of game officers. 

In the following review of provincial game legislation and 
its administration, an effort is made to indicate in what 
directions the game laws of the various provinces and their 
administration may be improved, with a view to securing 
better conservation of the animals that these laws are de- 
signed to protect. 

Prince Edward Island. — The Game Act of 1906, with sub- 
sequent amendments, provides for the appointment of a 
game inspector for the enforcement of the act, the provi- 
sions of which are also enforced by the provincial constables, 
policemen, and market clerks. The members of the Prince 
Edward Island Fish and Game Association are appointed 
honorary game wardens. For some time the position of 
game inspector has been vacant, and we cannot but feel 
that the lack of such an officer will result in a laxity in the 
enforcement of the provisions of the provincial game act. 
Bag limits should be provided in the case of game-birds. 

The sale of game-birds during the open season and the 
use of automatic and pump guns are wisely forbidden. 

Nova Scotia. — The Game Act of 1912, with subsequent 
amendments, is administered by a chief game commissioner 
and two associate commissioners, who are empowered to 



REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 279 

appoint game wardens and district game inspectors. Regis- 
tered guides and chief forest rangers are ex officio game 
wardens. 

There appears to be an insufficient number of game 
wardens in the province, and a consequent failure to enforce 
fully the provisions of the game act. The sale of deer, 
caribou, and certain protected game-birds is prohibited, but 
such prohibition should also include moose and wild fowl. 

We would also urge the indefinite continuation of the 
close season on cow moose and caribou, as it is certain that 
without such means of increasing its abundance the caribou 
will become a thing of the past in Nova Scotia. The desira- 
bihty of establishing one or more game reserves in Nova 
Scotia has already been pointed out (see p. 256). 

New Brunswick. — The Game Act of 1909, with later 
amendments, is administered by the Minister of Lands and 
Mines. As a result of recent reorganization the protection 
of game has been combined with the forestry work, and the 
provincial forester is in charge of both services with a chief 
game guardian to superintend the enforcement of the 
game laws. The duties of game warden and forest ranger 
are combined, and there are many obvious advantages to 
such an arrangement. The number of ex officio game 
wardens has been greatly increased. An applicant for a 
game license is now required to take an oath that he will 
observe the game laws. This requirement should be more 
widely adopted; it will help to eliminate the "unfit" hunter. 

Two steps taken by the Province of New Brunswick in 
1918 are highly commendable. In the first place, the policy 
of appointing game wardens by a qualifying examination 
has been adopted in place of the patronage system. Such 
a method of securing efficient and qualified officers cannot be 
too highly praised, and its adoption by other governments 
would do more than anything else to bring about an effec- 
tive conservation of our game animals. The second wise 



280 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

policy is the prohibition of the sale of protected game, but 
we regret the retrograde action of the New Brunswick gov- 
ernment in repeaUng the no-sale of game regulation after it 
had been in effect for one season (1918-1919). This ques- 
tion is discussed elsewhere (see p. 333). 

A bounty of twenty-five cents is paid for hawks and owls. 
While the destruction of the great horned owl and certain 
hawks, such as the goshawk and sharp-shinned hawk, should 
be encouraged, the destruction of all owls and hawks that 
such a bounty encourages is very unwise, and an amend- 
ment of this provision is recommended. 

Owing to the scarcity of caribou in New Brunswick a close 
season has been established until 1921, and it will probably 
prove desirable to extend this close season for a further 
period of years. 

Quebec. — The Minister of Colonization, Mines, and Fish- 
eries administers the Quebec game laws. The Department 
of Game and Fisheries realizes the importance to the prov- 
ince of its game resources, which are being protected by a 
force of zealous wardens, who are apparently administering 
impartially the game laws. 

Until recently Quebec was the only province in which a 
close season was established for black bear. This has no 
doubt been responsible for the fact that there is no scarcity 
of this valuable fur-bearer in Quebec. The prohibition of 
the sale of all protected game, the reduction in the number 
of caribou that may be killed, and the institution of bag 
limits on wild fowl are measures that are to be strongly 
recommended. 

We would also suggest the protection of those species of 
owls and hawks that are known to be beneficial as destroy- 
ers of noxious rodents, etc. 

In the regulation of the fur trade the Province of Quebec 
has made a noteworthy advance, and the enforcement of 
the measures now in effect will undoubtedly insure the con- 



REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 281 

servation of one of the most valuable natural resources and 
economic assets in the province. 

Ontario. — A few years ago the Ontario government cre- 
ated a special Department of Game and Fisheries, with a 
deputy minister in charge to administer the Ontario Game 
and Fisheries Act. The Minister of Public Works and High- 
ways admmisters the department. The organization for the 
enforcement of the provisions of the act consists of a deputy 
minister, a superintendent, inspectors (not exceeding three 
in number), wardens who have districts, and overseers who 
have the authority of constables under the act. 

The greatest need in Ontario is the prohibition of the sale 
of all protected game, which is discussed elsewhere (p. 331). 
In view of the fact that there are not, so far as our records 
show, any wild turkeys in Ontario, this bird might advisedly 
be placed in the category of extinct game-birds, and given 
at least a permanent close season instead of an open season 
of a fortnight as at present ! The absolute close season on 
quail should be maintained (see p. 160). It would also be 
in the interests of the wild fowl, such as ducks and geese, to 
establish a daily limit in addition to a seasonal bag limit. 

Manitoba. — The Game Protection Act of Manitoba is 
administered by the Minister of Agriculture, the provisions 
of the act being enforced by the chief game guardians, with 
the assistance of local game guardians. 

The Manitoba government wisely prohibits the sale of all 
protected game, and has recently given the wapiti or elk a 
peraianent close season. In view of the fact that antelope 
no longer occur in Manitoba, and are permanently pro- 
tected in Saskatchewan and Alberta, where the few that 
remain are now to be found, the provision of an open season 
of three weeks for antelope in Manitoba should be repealed. 
A bag limit of forty ducks per day in October and Novem- 
ber, without a seasonal bag limit, appears to us to be too 
large at the present time. 



282 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Saskatchewan. — The Game Act of Saskatchewan is ad- 
ministered by the Minister of Agriculture, and the provisions 
of the act are enforced by a provincial game guardian, with 
the assistance of local game guardians and honorary guar- 
dians. 

One of the chief needs of Saskatchewan appears to be the 
organization of a staff of paid and qualified district game 
guardians, as the present system fails to meet adequately 
the requirements of the situation, and throws too much re- 
sponsibility on the provincial game guardians for the proper 
enforcement of the provisions of the Game Act. 

In all the Prairie Provinces the Royal Northwest Mounted 
Police, as ex officio game wardens, have greatly assisted in 
the enforcement of the provincial game acts, and perhaps 
this fact has been partially responsible for the failure on the 
part of the governments concerned to organize adequate 
field staffs for game protection. 

It is gratifying to record that the efforts that have been 
made to secure a permanent close season on wapiti or elk 
have now proved successful. The Province of Saskatche- 
wan is to be congratulated as one of the first provinces in 
Canada to prohibit the sale of protected game. As Bulletin 
No. 49 of the Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture, 
giving a synopsis of the game laws, states: ''A game butcher 
or market hunter is an undesirable citizen and should be 
treated as such." 

We would recommend that the close season on sage grouse 
be made indefinite, in view of the very restricted range of 
this bird in Canada and the fact that it is not Hkely to be- 
come abundant. 

As a means of preventing accidents, hunters of big game 
in Saskatchewan are required, as also in Manitoba, to wear 
white outer suit and cap. Such a distinguishing costume 
might advisedly be adopted in other provinces. 

Alberta. — As in the other Prairie Provinces the Game Act 



REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 283 

is administered by the Minister of Agriculture, and the pro- 
visions of the act are enforced by a chief game guardian. 

The most necessary amendment that is requu-ed in the 
Alberta Game Act is the repeal of those provisions which 
legalize market hunting, and the prohibition of the sale of 
game. The existence in this act of an interpretation clause 
which states that: ''The term 'market hunter' shall mean 
any person who hunts or shoots game for gain or profit," 
and the legalizing of such hunting for monetary gain by the 
purchase of a market hunter's license for five dollars, are 
not in keeping with the principles of game protection of 
to-day, when all authorities are agreed that the market 
hunter is a menace to what remains of our game resources. 
We would urge the Alberta Government to remove from an 
excellent game act that which tends, more than anything 
else, to defeat the objects of such legislation. 

The number of mountain sheep and goat in Alberta would 
undoubtedly increase if the bag limit were reduced to one 
sheep and one goat, and if the laws were enforced in the 
case of Indians, who have been chiefly responsible for the 
reduction that has taken place in the number of these 
animals, which are a great asset to the province. 

British Columbia. — In 1918 the game-protection service in 
British Columbia was completely reorganized by the estab- 
lishment of a Provincial Game Conservation Board, con- 
sisting of members appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor 
in Council, which board is charged with the administration 
of the Game Act. It has been decided to entrust to the 
provincial pohce, who will be ex officio game guardians, the 
enforcement of the provisions of the Game Act, and the 
chief of the provincial police is chief game warden. A num- 
ber of the experienced game wardens are retained. 

The game legislation of British Columbia differs from that 
of the rest of the provinces by reason of the fact that the 
open seasons are fixed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Coun- 



284 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

cil, and not by the provincial legislature. A similar policy 
is followed in the case of the legislation enacted by the Do- 
minion Government for the protection of migratory birds 
and of game in the Northwest Territories. The method of 
fixing open seasons, etc., by Order in Council, has great ad- 
vantages over the method generally in vogue of accomplish- 
ing this by amendments to the Game Act. Such amend- 
ments can only be made when the legislature is in session, 
and not infrequently it is of great importance to make a 
change in an open season without the delay necessitated by 
a postponement of such action until the legislature meets. 
The claim sometimes made that delegation of these powers 
to the Lieutenant-Governor in Council is likely to be abused 
has not been borne out in practice; on the contrary, it has 
been found that the needs of the situations that arise from 
time to time in wild-life protection can be more opportunely 
met by such a policy, which is to be strongly recommended 
on that account. 

A number of important restrictions have recently been 
placed on the kilhng of big game. The bag limit on moose 
has been reduced from two to one, on caribou from three to 
two, and on mountain goat from three to two. These were 
necessary and wise reductions and, with the other restric- 
tions on big-game hunting that have been made, they un- 
doubtedly will be a means of conserving some of our finest 
big game, for which the province is justly famous. In fact, 
there is no better big-game region on the North American 
continent than the Cassiar region of British Columbia. 

In 1918, for the first time, a close season was established 
on bear, which now may be killed only from October 1 to 
June 30. It would be very desirable to proceed further 
and amend the Game Act for the purpose of establishing a 
bag limit on grizzly bears. Grizzhes are not so abundant 
now as to permit their unlimited destruction. 

The sale of all protected game is advisedly prohibited 



REVIEW OF PROVINCIAL GAME LEGISLATION 285 

throughout the province, with the following exceptions, 
namely: moose and caribou (bulls over one year of age only) 
may be sold in the northern districts— Atlin, Prince George, 
Omineca, and Cariboo— from October 1 to December 15, 
and bear throughout the province from October 1 to June 30. 



CHAPTER XIII 

INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT IN THE 
CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE 

The conservation of our wild life, from the largest of our 
big game to the smallest of our insectivorous birds, can only 
be achieved when a wider interest in the subject is created 
in the minds of the majority of our citizens. Our respon- 
sibilities in this matter have been indicated in a previous 
chapter. At the present time we depend ahnost entirely 
upon the enforcement of our game laws for the attainment 
of our ends. Wise game laws will do much for the protec- 
tion of our wild Ufe, particularly in the direction of checking 
the destructive tendencies of the market hunter and game- 
hog; but the proper enforcement of such laws can only be 
effected if the will of the people at large is behind them, 
and in order to secure such popular support there must be 
carried out a policy of education among young and old. 

Education 

Educational propaganda on this subject should be more 
easy of execution than that covering the conservation of any 
other resource, for this reason: no subject is more appeaHng 
to young people and to older people, whatever their voca- 
tions, than that of wild life. Further, there is an encour- 
aging growth in the demand for information on this subject, 
and the increasing number of '' nature" books is an indica- 
tion of that demand. No subject appeals more to the aver- 
age child than natural history, and the ever-growing num- 

286 



INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 287 

ber of our citizens who nowadays find their recreation in 
field and forest has naturally led to a desire for information 
regarding all the forms of wild life that constitute one of 
the great attractions of our countryside. Advantage should 
therefore be taken of these favourable circumstances. 

In our schools instruction in natural history is advisedly 
receiving greater attention. The subject is so fundamental 
to a proper conception of the world wherein we live, and is 
so valuable as a means of conveying information on biological 
problems, particularly in relation to health, that it should 
be given a prominent place in every educational curriculum. 
If it were given, as it should be given, a place in a child's 
instruction equal in importance to what are now considered 
the primary essentials in education, a broader, more humane, 
and more sjrmpathetic mental attitude would ensue. What 
knowledge can be of greater interest and value than a knowl- 
edge of the world around us and of our fellow creatures? 

At the end of an heroic journey, awaiting death, that 
most gallant and brave of British explorers. Captain R. F. 
Scott, in his last letter to his wife, wrote these memorable 
words regarding the education of his Httle son Peter: ''Make 
the boy interested in natural history if you can; it is better 
than games; they encourage it at some schools. I know you 
will keep him in the open air." What greater testimony 
could we have? 

If natural history were taught in all our schools, and chil- 
dren were thus trained to understand and appreciate the 
meaning of our wild Ufe, its conservation would be insured. 
A great responsibility, therefore, rests upon the shoulders 
of our educational authorities, and we fervently hope that 
they will not be negligent in their attention to the needs of 
the situation. 

One of the most potent organizations that, properly di- 
rected, may be utilized in our educational propaganda, is 
the Boy Scouts. The far-sighted organizer of this world- 



288 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

wide association of boyhood, himself a hunter and lover of 
open-air pursuits, realized the moral and educational value 
of the open air and a knowledge of woodcraft and wild life 
as one of the essentials of this system of training. It is 
impossible to conceive a greater opportunity than that af- 
forded by this organization for creating a vast army of pro- 
tectors of our wild hfe. We would urge those in charge of 
this valuable work to lay special stress upon the significance 
of our wild life, its rational use and proper conservation; by 
so doing a work of inestimable value will be accomplished. 

The press of this country has repeatedly shown its in- 
terest in this subject. But it can render far greater assis- 
tance than it has afforded up to the present by taking every 
opportunity to lead public opinion in regard to the necessity 
of conserving our wild life. It is not sufficient to chronicle- 
events, but in season and out of season the press should 
promote the conservation of our wild hfe and censure such 
acts and movements as tend to affect its interests adversely. 

One of the most valuable educational agencies of to-day 
is the moving picture, and its influence is increasing. A 
few years ago I was informed that educational films were 
not popular, and that it was necessary to cater to public 
opinion. Fortunately, this does not appear to be true 
to-day. The makers of films have realized the interest that 
the general public takes in films depicting wild-life subjects, 
and there are a large number of such films now in circulation. 
Their preparation should be encouraged and assisted to the 
fullest extent possible. No better means exists for placing 
before the people the wealth of our wild life, and the neces- 
sity of conserving it for the enjoyment of the people of to-day 
and in the future. Scenes depicting the killing of big game 
and other animals should be avoided, on account of their 
undesirable effect, although hunting scenes may be so illus- 
trated and described as to demonstrate the recreative value 
of wild life to the people of our cities. 



PLATE XX 




Frmn iilf'h'in uplis by I'. A. Tduim). I'linrtcsu of the Geological Surri'ij 




Reproduced by courtesy of the Museum 

1. Dead Gannets on beach near Perce, Gaspe, Quebec, where they have been 

washed up after being shot. Such destruction as this was one of the reasons for 
the establisliment of this reserve 

2. Gannets nesting on the chffs of Bonaventure Island, Gaspe 

3. Sea-bird group in American ISIuseum of Natural History, representing a section of 

Bird Rock in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence 



INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 289 

Private Wild-Life Sanctuaries and Game 
Reserves 

We have, fortunately, in Canada many examples of what 
can be accomplished by individual effort to preserve the 
wild life in a limited area. The value of such instances can- 
not be overestimated, both on account of the examples they 
oifer of what can be achieved by individuals and their effect 
on the abundance of the wild life of the neighbourhood. 

Mention has been made in previous chapters of instances 
of individual effort, such as the work of Mr. Jack Miner, in 
creating a wild-life sanctuary, particularly for wild fowl, 
near Kingsville, Ont., and of the fifteen-acre game preserve 
of Mr, Reuben Lloyd, a farmer at Davidson, Sask. In 
Ontario the Provincial Government has taken the com- 
mendable step of encouraging the establishment of wild-hfe 
preserves by individuals, and, in addition to the ''Miner 
Sanctuary," it has recently set aside the ''Peasemarsh 
Farm," on the shore of Georgian Bay in the county of 
Grey, as a bird sanctuary, at the request of the owner, Miss 
E. L. Marsh. We hope this example will be widely fol- 
lowed in other parts of the country, for nothing gives the 
owner so much real pleasure as the possession of a tract of 
land, however small it may be, in which the wild life is 
protected, not only from human enemies but from pred- 
atory animals, and particularly cats, the most destructive 
of the alien enemies of our native birds. 

The owner of a private wild-life sanctuary soon gains the 
confidence of the creatures that enjoy his protection. Daily 
his enjoyment of such a sanctuary increases, as his knowl- 
edge of the wild life that he is protecting grows and as new 
members respond to his encouragement. The changing of 
the seasons is followed by changes in his wild-life community. 
There is a never-ending stream of new pleasures that can 
come only to those who are fortunate enough to possess 



290 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

an area of suitable land and wise enough to assume the 
guardianship of the wild life that it harbours or is capable 
of harbouring, if protection is given by such means as may 
be necessary. 

The abundance of game in many European countries, 
frequently in regions devoted to agriculture and well popu- 
lated, is due in no small measure to the existence of game 
preserves and the careful protection of the game, in addi- 
tion to its propagation and the destruction of its enemies. 
In Canada the absence of large estates and the ownership 
of the land by those who cultivate it place the responsi- 
bility in the matter of protecting the wild life on the farms 
largely upon the farmer in the agricultural districts. 

Farmers and Game Protection. — A number of our game 
laws protect cultivated, cleared, or enclosed farm lands 
from trespass, the permission of the owner being required in 
order to hunt or shoot over such land. This is a just and 
necessary recognition of the rights of the owner to the wild 
life on his own land and to protection against damage to 
his crops and property. Much ill feeling has been aroused 
between farmers and hunters from the cities, owing to the 
failure of the latter to recognize the rights of the former, 
even though they be not legal rights, and to avoid inflict- 
ing damage to growing crops or other property. The crea- 
tion of a hostile attitude of mind on the part of a farmer 
towards sportsmen, through the thoughtlessness or wilful 
behaviour of the latter, is liable to react on the protection 
of the wild hfe, as a farmer will be less disposed to under- 
take protective measures, particularly in regard to game 
animals, if his efforts are likely to lead to increased annoy- 
ance to himself and greater damage to his property. It is 
essential, therefore, that sportsmen and others interested in 
the conservation of wild life should respect the rights and 
interests of farmers in the wild life and game on their farms, 
whether their rights are established by provincial law or not. 



INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 291 

A sympathetic attitude on the part of farmers throughout 
Canada towards the conservation of wild Hfe would be more 
effectual than any other factor in promoting this object. 
Comparatively few farmers, however, appreciate the ad- 
vantages which accrue from the protection and encourage- 
ment of wild life on their own properties. The economic 
importance of protecting insectivorous birds on our farms 
has already been emphasized in a previous chapter. To the 
farmer the presence of a supply of game on his farm means 
an addition to his meat supply. Further, if he undertakes 
to propagate game on his farm, he would, in many cases, 
obtain higher prices for such game than for the domestic 
poultry; game propagation, however, is a special subject in 
itself, and should not be undertaken without some knowl- 
edge of the subject, or loss and disappointment will follow 
instead of profit and enjoyment. The protection of game 
and wild life on the farm requires neither special knowledge 
nor great expense. The essentials are: (1) a well-defined 
boundary with appropriate notices at intervals for the 
public; (2) plenty of cover; (3) the destruction of predatory 
mammals and birds; (4) as abundant a supply of water as 
can be provided; and (5) a little food during inclement 
weather. 

Until the pleasures of wild life protection are enjoyed 
and its benefits appreciated by farmers, it is impossible for 
them to realize how the attraction of the farm and of farm 
Ufe can be increased for them and their families. Such an 
added interest to the life of the farms in many parts of 
Canada would help to retain some portion of the youth 
that now finds farm hfe too uninteresting, and migrates to 
the cities, thus reducing our agricultural population and food 
production; this is not a hypothetical opinion but is based 
on experience. 

Clubs. — In an account of his hunting experience in Quebec 
a few years ago, the late Colonel Theodore Roosevelt wrote: 



292 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

"In addition to the game laws, a large part is played in 
Canadian game preservation by the hunting and fishing 
clubs. These clubs have policed and now police many 
thousands of square miles of wilderness, worthless for agri- 
culture, and, in consequence of this policing, the wild crea- 
tures of the wilderness have thriven and in some cases have 
multiplied to an extraordinary degree on these club lands." 

An account has already been given of the manner in which 
the co-operation of sportsmen is secured in the protection 
of the wild hfe in the Laurentides Park, in Quebec, to which 
the foregoing observation, no doubt, has particular reference. 
In other parts of Quebec also game protection has been 
undertaken by individuals and clubs as a result of the pro- 
vision that is made in the Quebec Game Laws for such 
projects. The Quebec Government is empowered to estab- 
Ush ''hunting territories," which may not exceed 200 square 
miles, in pubhc lands remote from settlements. These hunt- 
ing territories may be leased either by auction or private 
agreement to one or more persons for not more than ten 
years for an annual sum of not less than three dollars per 
square mile. The lessee is given the exclusive right to hunt 
in such leased lands, and to prosecute in his own name. 
Thus the area becomes a private game preserve. 

In many cases these game preserves are proving to be a 
valuable means of protecting the wild hfe in the districts 
in which they are situated, and the fact that most of them 
are owned by clubs is an assurance that the policy of leas- 
ing such hunting territories will not result in the wide- 
spread creation of a large number of private game preserves 
controlled by a few persons, thereby defeating one of the 
main objects we have in view in conserving our wild life, 
namely, that all who wish may be able to enjoy it. 

On the majority of these game preserves the owners have 
erected cabins or club-houses, and permanent guardians 
are employed (Plate XVIII, 1). The owners of such pre- 



INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 293 

serves should not only appreciate their responsibilities, but 
also their opportunities, and, as far as may be possible, a 
constructive policy should be carried out in the matter of 
game protection. It is not sufficient merely to pay periodi- 
cal visits for the purpose of hunting and fishing, but every 
effort should be made to increase the wild life and improve 
the environmental conditions. 

An incessant campaign against predatory animals and 
birds should be carried out; attention should be given to 
available food supphes and to their improvement, and the 
conditions with regard to cover can frequently be improved. 
In all such preserves the possibihty of ground and other 
fires should always be remembered, and every precaution 
taken to prevent them within the reserve, or to check them 
should they start outside. Fires are the most destructive 
of all factors that adversely affect our wild fife, inasmuch as 
they destroy everything — breeding-stock, food, and shelter 
— and a lifeless desolation remains. 

Throughout Canada there are many areas reserved by 
clubs and individuals for duck-shooting. These reserves 
usually include marshes and small ponds and lakes, or the 
shores of lakes. Many of the areas to which I allude can- 
not be classed as game or wild-fife reserves in the true sense 
of the word; on the contrary, they appear to be maintained 
chiefly for the purpose of attracting and killing the greatest 
number of birds with the least expenditure of trouble; the 
only encouragement the wild fowl receive consists of the 
grain that is distributed in order to secure larger bags, and 
the only protection existing is the protection of the rights 
of the owners of the reserved area. On the other hand, 
there are numerous private reserves which have been estab- 
fished chiefly for duck-shooting, in which every effort is 
made to attract ducks by planting suitable food-plants, to 
propagate them, and to protect them from their enemies. 
Such reserves are rendering valuable aid in conserving our 



294 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

native wild fowl, and their establishment deserves encour- 
agement. 

Civic Game Reserves, — There is a type of wild-life reserve 
that ought to be widely adopted in Canada, but which, so 
far as I am aware, exists in one or two instances only and 
on a limited scale. This is what I would call a civic reserve. 
In a previous chapter the creation of community and civic 
bird sanctuaries has been recommended. The effect of such 
sanctuaries in the conservation of wild life in general would 
naturally be somewhat limited in its scope. A civic wild- 
life reserve, however, would include within its territory such 
native mammals and birds as might occur in the region ad- 
joining or within easy reach of the city owning it. As an 
example, it may be mentioned that the creation of a national 
or provincial park in the region adjoining the Gatineau 
River, north of Ottawa, has been urged for a number of 
years by individuals and local organizations, and this pro- 
posal was included in the recommendations of the commis- 
sion appointed (in 1913) to advise on the planning of the 
city of Ottawa. Unfortunately, however, no steps have yet 
been taken to carry out a'proposal that would furnish for the 
adjoining cities an unsurpassed recreation area, in which all 
the pleasures and benefits of life in the woods and hills would 
be the means of enlarging the interests and sympathies of 
thousands of our citizens who are strangers to so many of 
the joys that they might share. 

The idea of such a park or reserve in the country rather 
than within the city limits is by no means a new one. In 
England, within a few miles of London, one of the most 
thickly populated regions of the world, one may lose oneself 
in Epping Forest, one of the finest forest areas in England, 
where still may be found deer — not the semi-domesticated 
kind — badgers, foxes, and other species of wild life, un- 
molested. The city of Glasgow has a country park at Loch 
Argoil, and the city of Birmingham a park at the Lickey 



INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 295 

Hills. If cities in Great Britain can maintain such park 
areas for the recreation of their people, surely in Canada, 
with our incomparable opportunities for creating within easy 
access of our cities national parks and wild-life reserves, we 
should be able to make greater progress in this direction than 
has already been accomplished. All our larger cities have 
suitable areas in their vicinities; certain cities, such as Que- 
bec, Edmonton, Calgary, Vancouver, and Victoria, already 
have national or provincial parks within a comparatively 
short distance, but, in other cases, the distance to the near- 
est park prohibits many, to whom the opportunities which 
it affords for recreation are necessary, from taking advan- 
tage of them. Few movements would be more effectual as 
a means of improving the health of our citizens and of in- 
creasing their capacity for wholesome enjoyment than one 
for the creation of such civic reserves, and for this reason 
their promotion should be undertaken by all civic organiza- 
tions that are sincerely interested in the welfare of the com- 
munities in which they exist. 

Game Protective Associations. — Among the numerous 
methods by which community effort to conserve our wild 
life may be undertaken, the formation of special associations 
for this purpose constitutes one of the most influential. 
There are already in existence in Canada a number of asso- 
ciations of sportsmen, guides, and also of persons interested 
in the protection of wild life. Although a number of such 
sportsmen's organizations were primarily formed for the 
protection of the interests of the sportsmen rather than for 
the protection of the game, the majority of these associations 
are fully aUve to the importance of adequate protection for 
our game animals, as evidenced by the support that many 
of them gave to the Migratory Birds Treaty, even though 
its provisions somewhat curtailed opportunities for hunting 
wild fowl. 

Of all classes of the community the sportsmen should be, 



296 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

and in my experience usually are, most interested in the 
conservation of our wild life. In such associations the sel- 
fish element, to whom the idea that the conservation of our 
wild life for the enjoyment of posterity is a duty does not 
appeal, is fortunately becoming rarer, though its voices 
may be heard from time to time. The majority of sports- 
men, using the word in its real sense as excluding the game- 
hog and pot-huntei;, in Canada, are behind any movement 
that tends to the conservation of our game and wild-life re- 
sources. I have invariably found this to be the case, and 
it is an attitude that one might expect. 

We need, however, a far greater number of such local 
associations of sportsmen, naturalists, and others interested 
in the conservation of game and wild life. There should be 
one in every large district or county, whose chief object 
would be to act as trustee for the wild Hfe in his particular 
region. Upon such associations should rest the responsi- 
bility of securing and making effective such protective 
measures as the wild life of their districts might require. 
The influence that such associations, when composed of men 
interested in the wise conservation of wild life rather than 
its reckless destruction, regardless of the future, would have 
on the citizens in their respective districts, is incalculable. 
Their co-operation in the protection of the wild life in their 
districts would be welcomed by the provincial governments; 
through them a real pubhc opinion on the subject could be 
created; and a greater observance of the game laws would 
be insured. As a means, therefore, of securing the conser- 
vation of game and wild life, we would strongly recommend 
the formation of local associations of all interested. There 
is, in most districts, a sufficient number of sportsmen, 
farmers, nature-lovers, and others who seek recreation in 
the woods and fields, and who have a genuine interest in 
the conservation of the wild creatures which they pursue 
with gun, camera, or field-glass, to form such associations; 



INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 297 

whether they are called game-protection associations or 
wild-life-conservation associations is immaterial, so long as 
their objects are those that this volume is endeavouring to 
promote, namely, the conservation of our wild-life resources 
for the benefit of Canadians of to-day and of the future. 

The Attitude of the Sportsman 

The term ''sportsman" has a very definite meaning in the 
English language, owing to the fact that the predominant 
characteristic of British sport is ''fair play," and any person 
who takes an unfair advantage of opponent or hunted quarry 
is ruled out. It is in such a sense that the word should 
always be used. When applied to the hunting of game the 
word has a special significance in so far as the conservation 
of game is concerned, and for that reason it is appropriate 
that it should be discussed here. 

One of the most noted associations of hunters in the world 
is the Shikar* Club of London, of which His Majesty, King 
George, himself a famous sportsman, is honorary president, 
and which includes in its membership the most noted hunt- 
ers of big game. Its chief object is set forth in the follow- 
ing words: 

To maintain the standard of sportsmanship. It is not squandered 
bullets and big bags which appeal to us. The test is rather in a love of 
forest, mountain and desert; in acquired knowledge of the habits of ani- 
mals; in the strenuous pursuit of a wary and dangerous quarry; in the 
instinct for a well-devised approach to a fair shooting distance; and in 
the patient retrieve of a wounded animal. 

Such should be the ethics of all who hunt game in Canada; 
sportsmen's organizations should requhe their members to 
subscribe to this definition of the objects of the hunter. 

In 1908, Doctor W. T. Hornaday, than whom no man has 
done more to promote the conservation of our wild life and 

* Shikar is the Hindustani word for "hunting." 



298 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

the real objects of hunting game, reahzing the need of an 
adequate code of ethics to govern the taking of wild game, 
prepared the following code as a ''sportsman's platform." 
It has been formally adopted as setting forth their objects 
by the Camp Fire Club of America, by the North American 
Fish and Game Protective Association, and by numerous 
sportsmen's and game-protective organizations in Canada, 
and its adoption may be the means of securing a true 
standard of sportsmanship and the conservation of our un- 
surpassed game resources, which it should be the object of 
every Canadian sportsman to promote to the utmost of his 
ability. 

THE SPORTSMAN'S CODE OF ETHICS 

1. The wild animal life of to-day is not ours, to do with as we please. 
The original stock is given to us in trust, for the benefit both of the present 
and the future. We must render an accounting of this trust to those 
who come after us. 

2. Judging from the rate at which the wild creatures of North America 
are now being destroyed, fifty years hence there will be no large game left 
in the United States nor in Canada, outside of rigidly protected game 
preserves. It is therefore the duty of every good citizen to promote the 
protection of forests and wild life and the creation of game preserves, 
while a supply of game remains. Every man who finds pleasure in hunt- 
ing or fishing should be willing to spend both time and money in active 
work for the protection of forests, fish and game. 

3. The sale of game is incompatible with the perpetual preservation 
of a proper stock of game; therefore it should be prohibited by laws and 
by public sentiment. 

4. In the settled and civilized regions of North America there is no 
real necessity for the consumption of wild game for food purposes. The 
maintenance of hired labourers on wild game should be prohibited every- 
where, under severe penalties. 

5. An Indian has no more right to kill wild game, or to subsist upon it 
all the year round, than any white man in the same locality. The In- 
dian has no inherent or God-given ownership of the game of North 
America, any more than of its mineral resources; and he should be gov- 
erned by the same game laws as white men. 

6. No man can be a good citizen and also be a slaughterer of game or 



INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY EFFORT 299 

fishes beyond the narrow limits compatible with high-class sportsman- 
ship. 

7. A game-butcher or a market-hunter is an undesirable citizen, and 
should be treated as such. 

8. The highest purpose which the killing of wild game and game fishes 
can hereafter be made to serve is in furnishing objects to overworked 
men for tramping and camping trips in the wilds; and the value of wild 
game as human food should no longer be regarded as an important factor 
in its pursuit. 

9. If rightly conserved, wild game constitutes a valuable asset to any 
country which possesses it; and it is good statesmanship to protect it. 

10. An ideal hunting trip consists of a good comrade, fine country, and 
a very jew trophies per hunter. 

11. In an ideal hunting trip, the death of the game is only an incident; 
and by no means is it really necessary to a successful outing. 

12. The best hunter is the man who finds the most game, kills the 
least, and leaves behind him no wounded animals. 

13. The killing of an animal means the end of its most interesting 
period. When the country is fine, pursuit is more interesting than pos- 
session. 

14. The killing of a female hoofed animal, save for special preservation, 
is to be regarded as incompatible with the highest sportsmanship; and 
it should everywhere be prohibited by stringent laws. 

15. A particularly fine photograph of a large wild animal in its haunts 
is entitled to more credit than the dead trophy of a similar animal. An 
animal that has been photographed never should be killed, unless pre- 
viously wounded in the chase. 



CHAPTER XIV 

GOVERNMENT RESERVES FOR THE PROTECTION OF 

BIRDS 

In addition to the national and provincial parks which 
have been described in another chapter, there have been 
reserved in different parts of Canada by the Dominion Gov- 
ernment, alone or in co-operation with the provincial govern- 
ments concerned, certain areas as reserves for the protection 
of birds, particularly the migratory species of wild fowl and 
shore-birds. 

Saskatchewan and Alberta. — The greatest number of these 
are to be found in the provinces of Saskatchewan and Al- 
berta. The reservation of these areas is of very great im- 
portance on account of the inevitable destruction of the 
former breeding and feeding places that has taken place, 
owing to the agricultural development and settlement of the 
western plains which formerly constituted the haunts of a 
very large proportion of our migratory wild fowl and shore- 
birds. Unless such reservations were made, there would 
undoubtedly be a continued and marked decrease in the 
numbers of these birds, which the international treaty for 
the protection of migratory birds is intended to prevent. 
Consequently, the policy of establishing and maintaining 
such bird reserves or sanctuaries is an integral and important 
part of the work involved in carrying out the intentions and 
provisions of the treaty. 

The steps that have been taken by the Dominion Govern- 
ment in the establishment of reserves for the protection of 
birds in Western Canada up to the present time are as 
follows: 

By Order in Council of the 8th of June, 1887, certain 
islands and land adjoining the northern portion of Last 

300 



GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 



301 



Mountain Lake, in Saskatchewan, were reserved; this area 
contained altogether approximately 2,534 acres. By an 
order of the Minister of the Interior on February 13, 1911, 
all the vacant lands in the vicinity of Ministik Lake, Al- 
berta, and other lakes in that locality, were set aside as 
bird reserves. On May 18, 1915, the Minister of the Interior 
approved of the reservation of all the vacant quarter-sections 
immediately adjoining the following lakes in Saskatchewan 
and Alberta, with a view to the future establishment of 
permanent bird reserves: 



Quill Lakes. 
Lenore Lake. 
Basin Lakes. 
Bitter Lake. 



Moose Head Lake. 

Gaskell Lake. 

Grease Wood Lake. 
*Pakowki Lake. 
*Big Hay Lake. 



Saskatchewan 
Cabri Lake. 
Bigstick Lake. 
Crane Lake. 
Goose Lake. 

Alberta 
*Birch Lake. 
*Miquelon Lake. 

Cooking Lake. 
*MinistLk Lake. 

Wabamun Lake. 



Redberry Lake. 
Johnston Lake. 
Chaplin Lake. 
White Bear Lake. 



Lac Ste. Anne. 

Buffalo Lake. 
*Many Island Lake. 
*Lac la Biche. 



When these lands were withdrawn from settlement, with 
a view to the permanent reservation of those which were 
suitable for permanent estabhshment as bird reserves, it 
had not been possible to make a thorough examination of 
their suitability for the purpose for which they were intended. 
But such an examination was made in 1917 and 1918 by 
Doctor R. M. Anderson, zoologist of the Geological Survey 
and a member of the Advisory Board on Wild Life Protec- 
tion, and, as a result of his careful observations on the species 
of birds found frequenting, or likely to frequent, such res- 

* By Order in Council, dated 15th June, 1920, certain lands in the vicinity 
of the lakes marked with an asterisk were set aside as bird sanctuaries. 

An Order in Council, dated 22nd June, 1920, makes regulations for the con- 
trol and management of areas reserved as bird sanctuaries. 



302 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

ervations, and the existence of adequate food and other 
essentials of a successful bird reserve, it is now possible to 
determine which of these reserve areas should be established 
as permanent bird reserves. 

The following are brief accounts, prepared by Doctor 
Anderson, of the lakes that were found to be suitable for 
permanent bird reserves, and it is expected that they will 
be so established in the near future. 

Last Mountain Lake (formerly known as Long Lake), 
north of Regina, Saskatchewan. Part of north end of lake 
reserved, both by federal Order in Council and by provin- 
cial authorities as a game refuge. This is a very good breed- 
ing-ground, with many large ducks, canvasbacks, redheads, 
and mallards; a few Canada geese nest on the islands, also 
cormorants and gulls. It is well posted as a provincial 
game refuge. It should by all means be retained as a sanc- 
tuary. 

Lake Johnston, twenty-five miles southwest of Moose Jaw 
(formerly known as Old Wives Lake, Plate XIX). It has 
one large island, Isle of Bays, in the north part of the lake, 
which is also a provincial game refuge. This island is a 
very valuable reserve, comprising about 200 acres. Large 
numbers of white pelicans, cormorants, and great blue 
herons breed on it, also black-headed gulls (Franklin's?). 
In October, 1918, I saw about 500 Canada geese resting on 
it in the afternoon, and about 200 whistling swans in the 
water near the island. The geese feed on the mainland and 
have a resting-place here. The lake is said to be one of the 
chief resting-places for swans in migration through this 
country. The island should be certainly retained as a 
sanctuary. The land around the lake is mostly poor agri- 
cultural land and seems suitable for wild-fowl breeding. 
Lake Johnston is a good preserve for pelicans and cormo- 
rants, as there are no valuable food fish in the lake. Where 
there is reserved land in blocks of fair size it should be 



PLATE XXI 




From a photograph by Augustin Frigoii 




By courlf'sy of the Department of Marine 




From a photograph by Augustin Frigon 

BIRD RESERVES IN THE GULF OF SAINT LAWRENCE 

1. Bonaventure Island 

2. Bird Rock 

3. Perce Rock 



GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 303 

retained. There is so much land privately owned around 
the lake, and the lake is of such size, that it can hardly be 
retained as a sanctuary complete. With the island reserved 
as a refuge, and some breeding-ground reserved along the 
shores, the main shore of the lake might be left open to 
shooting in season. 

Chaplin Lake, forty-five miles west of Moose Jaw, Sas- 
katchewan. A shallow lake; said to be drying up. The 
land surrounding it is not very good agricultural land. 

Quill Lakes, thirty miles southeast of Humboldt. There 
is good breeding-ground along the south side of Big Quill 
Lake, from the creek west of Dafoe east to the town of 
Kandahar. From Kandahar east and north along the east 
side of the lake to the beginning of the Narrows between 
Big Quill Lake (the west lake) and Little Quill Lake (the 
east lake) the land is not so suitable for wild fowl, and bet- 
ter for farming. The region about the Narrows and around 
the eastern and northern side of Little Quill Lake, and north 
and west of Big Quill Lake, seems to be attractive breeding- 
ground. 

Lake Lenore and Basin Lake, fifteen and twenty-five miles 
respectively north of Humboldt, Sask. Basin Lake has high, 
steep, timbered shores, and little lowland near the lake. 
Lake Lenore has better conditions surrounding it, but most 
of the wild fowl of the region breed in the numerous swamps 
and sloughs around Middle Lake (between Basin Lake and 
Lake Lenore). Lake Lenore seems to have some pretty 
good qualifications as a breeding-ground, and probably as 
a resting-place for fowl if the surrounding country is too 
much shot over. At present the district is not hunted ex- 
cept by local homesteaders, as it is too far from railroads, 
and there are plenty of ducks nearer the towns. 

Redberry Lake, forty miles northwest of Saskatoon. 
This is an attractive lake and should be naturally a good 
breeding-ground. The country all around the lake is fairly 



304 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

thickly settled by Galicians, and the land cultivated or 
mowed pretty close to the edge of the lake. Some geese are 
said to breed on the islands in the lake, and they should be 
reserved, but it is questionable whether the remaining frag- 
ments of land on the edges of the lake are worth reserving. 

White Bear Lake, fifty miles north of Swift Current, Sask. 
This has the possibility of being a fairly good wild-fowl 
refuge, as the land immediately surrounding it is not such 
as to make it suitable for farming to any extent. It seems 
to have favourable places for ducks to nest along its shores, 
and plenty of shelter (thick beds of rushes) and good feed- 
ing-ground in the shallow waters. 

Crane Lake, fifteen miles northeast of Maple Creek, Sas- 
katchewan. This lake seems to have good breeding condi- 
tions for ducks, and also to have many gulls and shore-birds 
in summer. The land surrounding it is mostly rather poor 
and sandy; much of it is of little use except for grazing pur- 
poses. At present, the grazing does not seem to be close 
enough to interfere with the birds. 

Bigstick Lake, twenty miles north of Maple Creek, Sas- 
katchewan. The land here is very poor farming land — 
stony near the lake, and sticky alkali on the low places. 
Numerous ducks were seen on the lake, and numbers of 
geese on the land near the lake. The north, northwest, and 
southwest sides of the lake seem to be well taken up, and 
the small, fractional areas between these farms seem hardly 
worth retaining as sanctuaries. 

Birch Lake, eighteen miles southeast of Vegreville, Alberta. 
This lake has good possibilities as a bird sanctuary. It is a 
fair breeding-place for ducks; some Canada geese and gulls 
nest on the islands in the lake; and the brushy shores afford 
shelter to sharp-tailed grouse, which will need the shelter 
more as the country becomes more settled. The land sur- 
rounding the lake is, in many places, either too steep or too 
low for cultivation. 



GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 305 

Buffalo Lake, thirty-five miles northeast of Red Deer, 
Alberta. This is an attractive lake, with considerable nat- 
ural advantages for abundant bird Ufe. The reserved land 
is all in one township, and includes only a small part of the 
shore-line of this large lake. The southern arm of the lake 
seems very favourable to wild fowl. 

Many Island Lake, thirty-two miles east of Medicine Hat, 
Alberta. This lake is said to be a good shooting-ground in 
the fall. The country near the lake is rather hilly, sandy, 
and stony. There are some beds of rushes at the east end 
of the lake. Fair numbers of ducks were seen on the lake, 
mostly blue-bills and other small ducks. The long, narrow 
peninsula, extending half-way across the lake and covered 
with small bushes, weeds, etc., might afford good nesting 
sites for ducks, but I did not find any traces of nests. 

Big Hay Lake, twenty-five miles southeast of Edmonton, 
Alberta. This is a good wild-fowl reserve. Many ducks 
were seen. The large areas of reeds and cattails along the 
lake should be a good breeding-ground for canvasbacks and 
redheads, and should also afford a good summer refuge for 
the numerous ducks which nest around the little ponds back 
from the lake, and which will ultimately be surrounded by 
cultivated land. 

Miquelon Lake, thirty-three miles southeast of Edmon- 
ton, Alberta (Plate XIX, 1). This is a very good bird 
refuge. Many ducks breed here; also cormorants, great 
blue herons, gulls, terns, etc. White pelicans formerly 
nested on an island, but were driven off. The lake has 
large numbers of islands of all types, from low gravel bars, 
frequented by terns and gulls, to wooded islands, where the 
herons nest. 

Oliver Lake, about thirty miles southeast of Edmonton, 
Alberta. OHver Lake is said to be a good lake for wild 
fowl. The country around it is heavily timbered and not 
much settled, so that there are few if any good trails. 



306 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Ministik Lake, twenty miles southeast of Edmonton, Al- 
berta (Plate XIX, 3). The country around this lake is well 
timbered and not much settled. The lake is surrounded 
by great beds of cattails, bulrushes, reeds, and sedge, and 
provides unlimited feeding-ground and shelter for wild fowl. 
Large numbers of ducks were seen on the lake at the time 
of my visit, and all reports were that it was a good lake for 
ducks. 

Lac la Biche, one hundred miles northeast of Edmonton, 
Alberta. My visit was too late in the season to tell much 
about the wild-fowl possibilities. So much of the lake shore 
is taken up, most of the south side by the "Lac la Biche 
Settlement" (Indians and half-breeds), and most of the north 
side of the lake patented, that little land except some on the 
east end of the lake is reserved. As a good deal of settle- 
ment is going up on the railroad along the east side of the 
lake (the Alberta & Great Waterways Railway), and, fur- 
thermore, as the lake is one of the large important commer- 
cial fishing-lakes of this district, it may not be worth while 
to keep land reserved on the shores of the lake. It will be 
a difficult matter to preserve the game locally, with large 
numbers of Indians, half-breeds, and fishermen working on 
the lake. For that reason the land on the shores may not 
be' worth reserving as sanctuaries. There are several large 
islands in the lake which might be reserved for future inves- 
tigation. It does not have a very good reputation as a 
wild-fowl lake. 

Pakowki Lake, forty-five miles south-southwest of Medi- 
cine Hat, Alberta. This lake was not visited, owing to the 
difficulty of access to it in a reasonable time. It is situated 
in a rather rough country, and, as it is the only large lake 
in that region, it is probably worth retaining as a wild-fowl 
sanctuary, for a resting-place during migrations if not as a 
breeding-place. 



GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 307 

BIRD RESERVATIONS IN THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE 
(plates XX AND XXl) 

In the Gulf of St. Lawrence lie some of the most famous 
haunts of sea-fowl in the world. Ever since Jacques Car- 
tier reached the Bird Rocks, or ''Isles de Margaulx," as he 
called them, ''Margaulx" being the name the fishermen of 
northern France gave to the gannet, on the 21st of May, 
1534, up to the present time, the Bird Rocks, Bonaventure 
Island, and Perce Rock have been known to naturahsts and 
bird lovers as great breeding-places for gannets, kittiwakes, 
guillemots or murres of several species, razorbills, puffins, 
gulls, petrels, and other sea-birds. At the present time the 
Bird Rocks and Bonaventure Island constitute the chief 
breeding-places in the western hemisphere of the gannet, 
one of the most magnificent sea-birds in the world. 

During recent years considerable destruction of these 
birds and their eggs by fishermen and tourists has taken 
place, and many leading naturalists and ornithologists have 
urged the protection of the birds on these rocks by the Do- 
minion Government and the government of the province 
of Quebec. In 1915 the Commission of Conservation took 
up the question of establishing these rocks as bird sanctu- 
aries, and, as a result of its exertions, in which other organi- 
zations and individuals have co-operated, the Bird Rocks, 
Bonaventure Island, and Perce Rock were, in the spring of 
1919, created as national and provincial bird reservations 
by concurrent legislative action on the part of the govern- 
ment of the Province of Quebec and of the Dominion 
Government. 

The Bird Rocks. These rocks, consisting of the Great 
Bird Rock, on which a lighthouse has been erected, and the 
two Lesser Bird Rocks, form part of the Magdalen Islands 
group, the Great Bird Rock being about twenty miles north 
of the Magdalen Islands proper. Great Bird Rock is about 
seven acres in extent. The top of the rock, which is in- 



308 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

habited by the lighthouse-keeper and his assistants, has been 
cleared of birds, but the precipitous sides of the rock pro- 
vide nesting-places for many thousands of several species of 
sea-birds, the chief of which is the gannet. Doctor John 
M. Clarke, who has taken a very active part in the creation 
of these reservations, estimated* that, in 1910-1911, the 
total bird population was probably not less than 15,000, 
and that the gannets were not decreasing there. 

Bonaventure Island. This island lies about three miles 
southwest of the village of Perce, in the county of Gaspe, 
Quebec. It is roughly circular in outline, and about three 
miles in width. Steep cliffs surround the island, and on the 
southeastern face they rise to a height of 300 to 400 feet. 
These cliffs on the seaward side of the island, stretching for 
about a mile and a quarter, form the chief breeding-places 
of the gannets, murres, razor-billed auks, and puffins. The 
gannets are by far the most numerous, and the ledges for 
about half a mile appear to be covered with the snowy- 
white masses of these birds during the nesting season. Mr. 
P. A. Tavernerf estimated in 1914 that there were about 
7,500 birds nesting on Bonaventure Island. 

Perce Rock. Well known to all visitors to the Gaspe 
Peninsula and the Chaleur Bay, this strikingly shaped 
rock, with almost perpendicular sides, rising to a height of 
nearly 400 feet, remarkably coloured, provides nesting-places 
for inmmierable sea-birds, particularly crested cormorants 
and herring-gulls, which give the top the appearance of snow 
during the nesting season. 

RESERVE FOR GEESE IN NOVA SCOTIA 

In order to protect the large numbers of wild geese that 
collect and spend several months in each year in Port Joli 

* "Protection of Sea-Fowl of the Gulf of St. Lawrence," by John M. Clarke. 
Sixth Annual Report of the Commission of Conservation, 1915, pp. 108-116. 

t "Recommendations for the Creation of Three New National Parks in 
Canada," by P. A. Taverner. Sixth Annual Report of the Commission of 
Conservation, 1915, Appendix III, pp. 303-310. 



PLATE XXTI 




1. White Pelican rookery, Mountain Portage, Slave River, Northern Al- 

berta. From a photograph by R. M. Anderson 

2. Notice board on Saskatchewan Provincial Game Refuge. From a 

photograph by R. M. Anderson 

3. Canada Geese on artificial pond in the Miner Sanctuary, Esse.\ County, 

Ontario 

4. Aluminium tag used by Mr. Miner to mark wild geese and ducks for 

purposes of determining migration 



GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF BIRDS 309 

Harbour, in Queens County, Nova Scotia, the hunting and 
killing of geese in this harbour below high-water mark are 
prohibited. In 1919 Mr. J. A. Knight, chief game commis- 
sioner, reported that the geese wintering at Port JoU were 
more plentiful than usual. Such protection from moles- 
tation will do much to maintain the abundance of these 
birds visiting the south shore of the province. 

From the foregoing account it will be seen that a prom- 
ising start has been made in the direction of government 
reservations for our native bird fauna. Many other areas 
have been recommended as suitable for reservation, and 
there is every reason to believe that a policy that is sure to 
have so important an effect on the conservation of this sec- 
tion of our wild life will be continued both by the Dominion 
and by the provincial governments. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE UTILIZATION BY DOMESTICATION OF OUR LARGER 
NATIVE RUMINATING MAMMALS 

All the domesticated animals now in the service of man 
have been derived originally from wild animals which were 
native to the countries in which their domestication was 
first undertaken. Horses, cattle, and dogs have been so 
long associated with man's development that their origin 
is, in the majority of cases, shrouded by centuries of time, 
and is largely a matter of conjecture. The history of the 
horse is lost in antiquity; Egyptian monuments show us 
that the humped cattle were domesticated at least as early 
as the twelfth dynasty, that is, 2100 B. C. In China the 
domestication of the pig is believed to date back at least 
4,900 years from the present time. And the dog was domes- 
ticated in Europe long before the period of any historical 
record. 

As the cradle of the human race was probably in the sub- 
equatorial regions of the Eastern Hemisphere, the wild 
animals inhabiting more northerly regions would receive the 
attention of man at a later date, and it is not unlikely that 
one of the last animals to be domesticated was the caribou 
or reindeer. The reindeer of northern Europe and Asia 
have long been domesticated, but no attempts appear to 
have been made by the northern natives of the American 
continent to use this animal, and it was not until 1892 that 
domestic reindeer were introduced into North America. 
An account of the history of the reindeer on this continent 
will be given later in this chapter. 

Proposed Domestication of the Musk-ox. — There is still 
another native land mammal of large size which has char- 

310 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 311 

acteristics which suggest its possible value as a domesticated, 
or semi-domesticated animal, but which has not yet been 
tried in the service of man except as a source of wild meat, 
and this is the musk-ox. Doctor W. T. Hornaday has called 
my attention to one attempt to colonize this animal on new 
territory, which took place in July, 1903, when three musk-ox 
calves, two females and one male, were transported from 
Greenland and turned loose at Norrland, Sweden, in a lo- 
cality closely resembling their native habitat, but they all 
died. The first suggestion regarding the possible domesti- 
cation of the musk-ox appears to have been made by Pro- 
fessor S. F. Baird, in 1854, in an article on the native rumi- 
nating animals of North America and their susceptibility 
to domestication.* He wrote: 

It is not probable that the musk-ox could stand the warmth of the 
cUmate of the United States, although the experiment would be well 
worth trying. The hair is very long and silky, and has been occasionally 
worked into articles of dress. Could it be obtained in sufficient quan- 
tity, there is no doubt of its being of exceedingly great value in the arts. 
Unfortunately, this species, like the barren-ground reindeer, does not oc- 
cur within the limits of the United States, and the experiment of domes- 
tication, as well as of economical application in general, must be tried, 
if at all, by the Hudson's Bay Company. To the best of our knowledge, 
there is not a single specimen of the musk-ox in any museum of the 
United States; probably not even a portion of the skin or bone. 

A definite proposal, however, to utilize the musk-ox as a 
domestic animal was made by Mr. V. Stefansson, in 1916, 
as a result of his observations on the habits and value of the 
musk-ox in Melville Island. This proposal was embodied 
in a report to the Department of the Naval Service, and 
Mr. Stefansson has revised for me his statement since his 
return from the Canadian Arctic Expedition in 1918. The 
following is Mr. Stefansson's report: 

* "Pictorial Geography of the World," by E. S. Goodrich, vol. II, pp. 3&-40. 



312 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

A Possible New Domestic Animal for Cold Countries 

The reindeer industry is now well established by the United States 
government in Alaska and herds will, in natural course, doubtless increase 
till most of the tundra is utilized for pasturage, unless a more profitable 
use of the ground is discovered. In Asia and Europe the tending of rein- 
deer herds antedates history. 

In spite of the ancient character of the industry reindeer are in most, 
if not all places where they are now found, wild to the degree that they 
must be lassoed as the semi-wild cattle of our large ranches must also be 
lassoed. In Alaska a dog not used to reindeer or a wolf will stampede 
and scatter an untended herd, and, in some cases, even herds that have 
an attendant, and animals are thus frequently lost even when they are 
not killed by wolves. In bad weather the herds are sometimes hard to 
control and in inclement springs a large percentage of the fawns die in 
spite of the best efforts of the herders. 

From these points of view, the reindeer is, therefore, not an ideal 
domestic animal for the arctic lands. A further disadvantage is that a 
reindeer, unlike a sheep, is of no commercial value until after it is killed, 
except the few that are used as draught animals. True, reindeer are 
milked in some districts, but they are unsatisfactory compared with most 
milk animals. 

This summer (1916) our parties have been in more intimate contact 
with musk-oxen than is common with white men, and they have im- 
pressed all of us as a most valuable animal and one easy to domesticate. 
In fact, they act more like domestic cattle than does the average Alas- 
kan reindeer herd. It is only under special circumstances that they 
run away from what they seem to consider danger and they never run 
from dog or wolf. It is still more rare that they charge — this is prob- 
ably confined to bulls in the breeding season. In the big Canadian 
caribou herds bulls at the breeding season will charge men and then are 
far more dangerous than musk-oxen, while the bull moose has perhaps as 
large a record of man killing as any animal of North America. When in 
fear of man or wolf the herds commonly group in a circle, heads facing 
out, with the calves and young animals in the centre of the ring pro- 
tected by the others. 

One of the Eskimos now working for us once took and kept for several 
months a pair of musk-ox calves. They were as tame as dogs, followed 
the people about and when less than a year old one of them would pull a 
sled for which several dogs would have been needed. One of the calves 
was eventually killed by some strange dogs and the other was sold to a 
ship (whaler). 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 313 

Musk-oxen have the following advantages over reindeer as domesti- 
cated animals. 

(1) A full grown musk-ox gives twice as much meat probably as a 
grown reindeer of the same sex and twice as much fat. (As to the time 
it takes to mature, I do not have the facts.) 

(2) A musk-ox gives two or three times as much milk as a reindeer. 
The milk is considered by the white men of our parties to be better than 
cow's milk in taste. It differs from cow's milk hardly at all except in 
being richer in cream. 

(3) Reindeer, unless herded, tend to range far. Musk-oxen do not 
move until they have finished the feed in a given locality and then they 
move to the next spot of good feed. A herd of musk-oxen in grazing 
moves from three to five miles a month, generally. 

(4) Musk-oxen are not stampeded by bad weather as reindeer and 
cattle are, and they cannot be stampeded by wolves and dogs. 

(5) It is probably very rare that wolves kill musk-oxen. A band of 
wolves cannot make the least impression on a herd of musk-oxen, and I 
am of the opinion that even two grown animals would stand off a band 
of wolves. We frequently see them feeding unconcernedly with wolves 
walking about near them, evidently seen by the musk-oxen.* It is likely, 
however, that single animals are occasionally surprised away from the 
herd and killed, though they commonly feed bunched up and form a de- 
fensive circle at the first snort of alarm from one of their number. Young 
calves are probably also killed occasionally by sudden onslaughts of 
wolves. Whether bears kill musk-oxen, we do not know, but it is likely. 
We have at least proof that they occasionally try to get caribou; though 
it is almost certain they rarely or never succeed. 

(6) The greatest advantage of the musk-ox over caribou is that, like 
sheep, it furnishes a large amount of wool annually without having to 
be killed first. Just what commercial use of wool would best fit, I do not 
know, but it is clear to anyone familiar with the methods of working wool 
employed by our grandparents that any Eskimo or other owner of a few 
musk-oxen could make for himself warm and comfortable clothing at 
home from their wool. However, I have not the slightest doubt there is 
a market for the wool, or, at least, that a market will develop as soon as 
the available quantity becomes considerable. If the animals were clipped 
there would be a certain comparatively small amount of hair mixed with 
the wool, but, if this were found detrimental to its commercial value and 
if machinery could not be devised to separate the hair from the wool, it 

* Ekblaw records the killing of a full-grown male musk-ox, one of a band 
of four, by a pair of wolves in Ellesmere Island (MacMillan's "Four Years 
in the White North," pp. 348-349). 



314 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

would be easy enough to get the wool nearly pure at the start by pulling 
it at the shedding season instead of clipping. The quantity given by one 
musk-ox would be equal to that of two to three sheep. 
The disadvantages of the musk-ox as compared with the reindeer are: 

(1) As draught animals they are far inferior to the reindeer in speed. 
For certain uses this would be more than compensated for by their greater 
strength. While reindeer in use would correspond to dogs or ponies, 
musk-oxen would correspond to our domesticated oxen. 

(2) The skins of musk-oxen do not make as good clothes as those of 
reindeer. They are as good as domestic sheep, however, and our expedi- 
tion and other white men and Eskimos in the Arctic have found sheep 
moderately suitable if worn with woollen or cotton underwear. 

The question of whether musk-oxen would breed in captivity, may, 
I think, be dismssed, as they would not need to be confined, on account 
of their quiet habits, nor attended to, on account of their ability to pro- 
tect themselves; a band of them out of sight and hearing from a house 
would be practically in their native condition. 

From observation I am convinced that the popular idea that musk- 
oxen require high, rocky land, is wrong. How this idea originated is 
easy to see. On the mainland from Point Barrow east musk-oxen, wher- 
ever they have gone, have been exterminated by man. These have in 
general been caribou-hunting Eskimo or Indians. As high rocky land is 
generally not frequented by caribou and, as such land is generallj^ un- 
attractive to the Indian and Eskimo, it happens that the mainland musk- 
ox has survived generally in high, comparatively barren land. At least 
here in Melville Island we always find them in valleys and along the coast 
on the lowest available land. 

They are grass-eaters like cattle and not moss-eaters as the reindeer 
are. They are therefore adapted by nature to any grassy arctic land — 
which means a large part of the "barren ground" of Alaska and Canada 
(where, indeed, their bones are everywhere found). 

That the musk-ox has been exterminated in many districts is no criti- 
cism of him as a domestic animal. The same qualities which prevented 
him from fleeing from his human enemies are the very ones that commend 
him to us, as we desire him to take, in the northern districts, the place 
our sheep and cattle hold in the south. 

A question that can be determined only by experiment is whether, in 
this arctic climate, the musk-ox could stand being shorn of all its wool. 
If it could not, some half-way method can be found. The death rate 
among calves, whatever that is, could doubtless be reduced considerably 
by suitable care. 

If the rate of increase of the musk-ox is similar to that of sheep under 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 315 

domestication, or even similar to that of cattle and if — as seems certain 
— there proves to be a commercial market for their wool, many hundred 
thousand square miles of the continental and island part of arctic Canada 
could eventually be converted into as profitable pasture land as large 
sections of Australia, to say the least. Should mines and other industries 
develop, that would only increase the value of the musk-ox as a local source 
of meat and milk. 

The musk-ox could with about equal propriety be called the musk-sheep, 
and, as far as that goes, the "musk" might well be left out. The meat of 
even the old bulls had no "musk" smell noticeable to any of the white 
men of our party nor to the Eskimo, whose sense of smell is, in general 
(at least out-of-doors) , better than ours. All the white men agreed that 
the first meal they had of musk-ox meat tasted better than their first meal 
of caribou, except three of us whose first meal happened to be the meat 
of bulls in the spring. At that season, their flesh does have a strong taste, 
and that of the cows a sUght taste. But, as the same is true of the domes- 
ticated sheep and does not interfere with the eating of mutton, this need 
not be considered serious. In countries like Argentina, tallow is an im- 
portant article of commerce, and so it is — or was — in Australia. In this 
connection it is interesting to note that a large, fat musk-ox produces a 
hundred pounds of tallow in rare cases. It is probable that the males un- 
der domestic conditions would produce much more than do the wild ones. 

A thing that would appeal to those who have experience with sheep 
in such countries as the Canadian and American west, is that no blizzard 
(unless possibly at the calving season) can cause the owner of a herd of 
musk-oxen worry or even extra work. The blizzard does not blow in 
arctic Canada that would interfere with the comfort of a herd of musk- 
oxen. Except during the calving season possibly, and at shearing time, 
they would require no care. 

I shall not go into details as to how the initial breeding animals could 
be secured, but it is a simple matter, whether on the mainland while yet 
they are not exterminated, or in the uninhabited Arctic islands. Simplest 
of all would be to set apart, say Melville Island as an experiment station. 
If it should not be deemed proper that I urge this matter publicly while 
in Government service, I hope to do so when that service is ended. When 
the southern part of our country becomes densely populated, and with 
our short Hudson Bay and British Columbia routes to Europe and the 
Orient, such a pastoral development of arctic Canada, as I have outlined 
above, would become of great commercial importance. That the meat 
of the musk-ox would not find a ready market need not be feared. As it 
is, few persons could distinguish it from beef under most of the forms of 
modern meat cooking. 



316 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Mr. Stefansson, since his return, has laid his proposals 
personally before the Canadian and United States Govern- 
ments. In Canada, his proposals are now being considered 
by a commission appointed for that purpose. It is evident 
that if it can be experimentally demonstrated that the musk- 
ox is capable of being domesticated or semi-domesticated, it 
would furnish a factor of inestimable economic importance 
in the agricultural development of large tracts of our north- 
ern regions which are at present producing only furs. 

The Zoological Society of New York has demonstrated 
that the musk-ox can be kept in captivity even in a climate, 
such as that of New York, totally different from the climate 
to which these animals are accustomed in their native re- 
gions of the north (Plate IV). Doctor Hornaday has kindly 
furnished me with particulars of the animals that have been 
obtained and kept by the Zoological Society of New York. 
The first specimen was received in 1902, but lived only a 
few months. A second specimen, which was received in the 
same year, died an accidental death a month after its ar- 
rival. The third specimen, which was captured as a calf 
in the summer of 1909 on Melville Island, by Captain 
Joseph E. Bernier, reached New York in November, 1909. 
It fed well and kept in perfect health for five and one-half 
years, but died in May, 1915. Doctor Hornaday states 
that "she was so vicious that it was impossible to risk any of 
the male specimens of the musk-ox herd [the Rainey musk- 
ox herd mentioned below] in the corral with her. Her fierce 
disposition robbed the Zoological Park of what would other- 
wise have been a good opportunity to breed this species in 
captivity." The food of this animal consisted of red-clover 
hay and crushed oats. In the late spring of 1910 Mr. Paul 
J. Rainey captured, on EUesmere Island, six musk-ox calves, 
all of which were brought alive to the New York Zoological 
Park, where they arrived in September, 1910. One died of 
wounds received during capture, and malnutrition, in Oc- 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 317 

tober, 1910. The history of the remaining five members of 
the Rainey herd, consisting of four males and one female, 
was as follows: one male died three years later (1913) of 
pneumonia, a second male died in the same year, oedema of 
the lungs and chronic catarrh being the cause of its death; 
a third male and the female died in 1916, six years after their 
arrival in New York, the deaths in both cases being due to 
fatty degeneration of the heart and kidneys, and oedema 
of the lungs. The remaining male died in February, 1918, 
having lived in captivity for seven years and nine months. 
The cause of its death was general malnutrition; there was 
no actual organic disease. To this animal ''all civilized food 
finally became so distasteful that its appetite failed com- 
pletely." Experience showed that, in captivity, neither the 
hardy Rocky Mountain goat nor the musk-ox can endure 
soaking rains in weather that is either cold or cool. ''The 
woolly under-coats of both these species when once satu- 
rated with cold water remain so saturated for two or three 
days, and inactive captive animals cannot withstand the 
cold, wet blanket." 

Describing the habits of the musk-ox in captivity, Doctor 
Hornaday states: "In view of the impatient and dangerous 
temper of the adult musk-ox, amounting in some cases to 
positive savagery, it was at all times necessary to handle 
the animals with the utmost care, and at night each one 
required to have its own separate box-stall. The standard 
food of our musk-oxen was red clover hay and crushed oats. 
In sunmaer they were given constantly a moderate supply 
of freshly-cut green grass, but this supply was carefully 
limited to avoid intestinal disorders and diarrhoea. They 
were allowed all the water that they cared to drink, twice 
per day. It was the expectation of the public that our 
musk-oxen would suffer during the warm weather of mid- 
summer, but all those expectations were happily disap- 
pointed. The location chosen for the herd proved to be 



318 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

one of the coolest and best-shaded situations in the Zoologi- 
cal Park, but, at the same time, it was sheltered from sweep- 
ing winds. We have observed no suffering on the part of 
any of our musk-oxen during even the warmest weather of 
midsummer. In the afternoon of the hottest days the 
animals breathed more rapidly than usual, but there was 
no evidence of anything approaching real distress. On the 
whole, these animals seemed to us to develop as rapidly and 
as perfectly as they could have done in a state of nature. 
The adult bulls certainly compared very favourably with 
wild-killed specimens, and if there was any deterioration 
through living in captivity, it was not observable. These 
animals moved about freely on the Telford macadam pave- 
ment of their corrals sufficiently to keep their hoofs worn 
down to a proper length, and no trimming of their hoofs ever 
became necessary." 

Should it be decided to attempt experimentally, by the 
estabhshment of musk-ox experiment stations in northern 
Canada and Alaska, to domesticate the musk-ox, every 
effort will be made to apply our modern knowledge of animal 
husbandry and veterinary science to the development of 
such new and potentially valuable domestic animals. 

REINDEER IN ALASKA 

(plate xxiii) 

Few movements undertaken for the purpose of developing 
a new country have proved so successful and so full of in- 
terest, as the introduction of reindeer into Alaska, where 
they now constitute one of the greatest economic assets in 
that potentially rich country. The first reindeer, numbering 
171 animals, were introduced into Alaska from Siberia in 
1892; in twenty-five years, that is, by 1917, there were 98,582 
reindeer in Alaska; to-day there are over 100,000, and they 
form the chief agricultural industry of a country formerly 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 319 

destitute of domestic live stock. A brief summary of the 
history of this successful industry, for it is no longer an ex- 
periment, will be of interest. 

Professor S. F. Baird appears to have made the first sug- 
gestions in regard to the use of reindeer in North America, 
in 1851, in a paper published in the agricultural report of the 
United States commissioner of patents. He was strongly 
of the opinion that the native races of our North American 
caribou, the barren-ground and woodland caribou, were as 
capable of domestication as the species in Europe had proved 
to be. He suggested that such a step would prove of in- 
estimable benefit to the Indians of the north, who might in 
time become a pastoral people as a result. In order, how- 
ever, to avoid loss of time in domesticating our wild species, 
he advised the importation of domesticated reindeer from 
Europe. In 1885, eighteen years after the purchase of 
Alaska by the United States, the desirability of introducing 
domestic reindeer from Siberia into Alaska was suggested 
in the report of the U. S. Revenue Marine steamer Corwin, 
Later, in 1887, Charles H. Townsend recommended to the 
government the importing of reindeer into Alaska, and the 
teaching of the natives how to care for and to use the ani- 
mals. These recommendations were not followed, and it 
remained for Doctor Sheldon Jackson, general agent of edu- 
cation in Alaska, to make a beginning in this work, the ulti- 
mate success of which is a lasting monument to his indom- 
itable zeal. When he first visited Alaska, in 1890, with a 
view to establishing schools in that region for the natives, 
he was impressed with the necessity of introducing and 
maintaining in Alaska reindeer for domestic purposes and as 
a means of saving the inhabitants of that region from star- 
vation. Accordingly, on his return to Washington, he rec- 
ommended the introduction of Siberian reindeer into Alaska 
for the relief of the destitute Eskimos, and his recommenda- 
tion was duly transmitted to the Senate in December, 1890. 



320 CX^NSKRVATIOX OF CANADtAX WILD I.IFK 

No aotion \n^^ t^«?:n, and, feAriivc the n?i$ult$ of further do^v . 
l\vtor ,U4:>kjst>n msdc a public apivwl for fund?5 m 1891. 
Tho pron\pt aud <ronoro\is tv^ixmi^*^ ouAbUxi him to oon\- 
iiu^nc<^ tho purohast^ of roindivr in Sibi>ria. and thoir inttw 
ihjction into Alaska at Teller, in lSv^2. when 171 animals 
wen-^ tran<;port<\i. Tn ISv^^ the Unit<\i Statos Congiw^^ a|v 
propri.-it^xi $(.\CW for the intivviuction of don^o^^tio nnndei>r 
into Alas^k.^. The n\anacx>nient of this appi\>priation w-as 
intrusted by the SecretAij' of the Interior to the commis- 
sioner of education, as the work of intivxiucing domestic 
reindeer into Ak^s;ka^ and the instruction of the natives in 
the arts; of herding, haniessii\g, dri\nng, etc was made i>art 
of the scheme of industrial education maintained by tho 
government in Alaska. 

IVtween ISi^J and 1902, when the importation of rein- 
deer from :^beria ceas^xi .altogether, the total number of 
animals ' \i w.-^is 1.2Si\ The pre>!ent abundance is due 

to the p: .ss of the reindeer. The statistics covering 

the yeaKi lSd2 to 1904 showed that the inci^ease of the rein- 
deer herds pn^gressed at an average rate of forty-five per 
cent per aimmn, doubling the total once in two and one- 
third year^ 

Doctor Jackson stated that the objects; of the reindeer 
V ' - were: "To convert the nomadic t.rilx>s of fishers 

;-. ..:ojs in Xorthwestom and Central Alaska into raisers 

of reindeer; to change their occupation from the precarious 
purjjuit^ of hunting wild animals and of taking the fish from 
the watojs of inland rivers to that of heaxiers and teamsters; 
to elevat<» a people who, in their wild, imcivilized state, are 
the proy of nnsscrupulotts, transient immigrants; into a seif- 
saipixMting ra^\ not enemies but frieadly allies and auxil- 
iaries of the white man," 

It was realized thats as the reindeer is the only draf: 
a^iimal in arctic regions that is able to s^^ure its own food 
xvhilo on a journey, the qnestkm of eheapziess and speed 



J'hATK XX III 




Phnloorophs by courlcsy nf thr Bureau of Educnlinn, U. S. Deparlmenl of Ihr Inlcriar 
REIXDEEK HERDS IX ALASKA 

1. RcMndncr horrl crossing a riv(^r 

2. Reindeer feedinf? throiif^li tlio snow 

3. RfMnrleer teams 

4 Portion of reindeer herd 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 321 

would bring it into universal use. The Eskimo is very well 
adapted to the work of herder or teamster, and is thus 
becoming an important agent in the development of the 
country. 

In order to fit the natives to become the helpers of the 
white man in the development of Alaska, the United States 
Government, through the Bureau of Education, estabhshed 
a number of reindeer stations for the training of the young 
men in the raising, care, and management of reindeer as an 
industrial branch of the public-school system of central and 
northern Alaska. Bright young men were selected and 
placed in these schools as apprentices for a period of five 
years, under skilful Finn or Lapp instructors, who drilled 
them in the business. Reindeer herds were allotted to the 
various mission stations, and a skilled herder was furnished 
for the purpose of instruction. It was found that it was 
more economical to instruct the young Eskimos through the 
mission-station rather than the government herds. 

The following is a summary of the rules and regulations 
regarding the United States reindeer service in Alaska: 

The supervision of the reindeer herds and stations in 
Alaska shall be included in the duties of the district super- 
intendents of schools for natives in Alaska. These herds 
and stations are to be inspected at least once a year, and 
quarterly in the case of stations easily accessible. It is the 
duty of the district superintendent to see that all regulations 
regarding the service, distribution of reindeer to apprentices 
and herders, contracts and all other business are carried out, 
and monthly reports are to be submitted to the commissioner 
of education. 

A local superintendent shall have immediate supervision 
of each herd of reindeer and oversight of the apprentices, 
herders, and reindeer herd. He is required to superintend 
the annual marking of the reindeer, and to see that they are 
marked correctly according to ownership. The local super- 
intendent may butcher each year not to exceed two male 



322 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

reindeer, none of which shall be under four years of age, for 
every hundred reindeer in the herd, for the support of ap- 
prentices, but the sale or barter of such meat is not per- 
mitted. 

Apprentices are required to bind themselves to obey the 
rules and regulations, which also govern all reindeer re- 
ceived by them during their apprenticeship. Each ap- 
proved apprentice receives the following numbers of rein- 
deer at the end of each year of his apprenticeship: end of 
first year, six reindeer (four females and two males) ; second 
year, eight reindeer (five females and three males); third 
year, ten reindeer (six females and four males) ; fourth year, 
ten reindeer (six females and four males). Additional rein- 
deer are provided in certain cases. At the end of the fourth 
year, if the apprentice has been faithful and successful, and 
is at least twenty-one years of age, he can be certified as a 
trained herder. When a native herder owns at least fifty 
reindeer he may train apprentices and distribute reindeer 
to them according to the aforementioned rate per annum. 
Additional apprentices may be trained by such a herder, as 
his herd increases, according to a fixed scale. 

The herders may sell, exchange, give, kill, or in any way 
dispose of female reindeer, only to the government, or, by 
official sanction, to another native inhabitant of Alaska. 
Each native herder must remain with his herd at least ten 
months each year, or arrange for a competent substitute. 
Intemperance or continued neglect involves forfeiture of the 
herd, either to a member of the herder's family competent 
to manage it or to the government. 

No female reindeer may be sold or disposed of to any 
person other than a resident native of Alaska, and such 
sale or disposal must have official sanction. Only com- 
petent herders may receive such reindeer. 

The following are the latest complete official statistics 
regarding the United States reindeer service in Alaska, as 
given in the annual report of the work of the Bureau of 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 323 

Education for the natives of Alaska for the year 1917-1918. 
The reports from the reindeer stations for the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1917, show that the reindeer had increased 
from 82,151 in 1916 to 98,582, and the number of herds 
from 85 to 98. Of the 98,582 remdeer, 67,448, or 69 per 
cent, were owned by 1,568 natives; 3,046, or 3 per cent, were 
owned by the United States Government; 4,645, or 5 per 
cent, were owned by the missions; and 23,443, or 23 per cent, 
were owned by Lapps and other whites. The whites ob- 
tained their reindeer by buying out the Lapp herders who 
had obtained deer without restrictions. The total income 
of the natives from the reindeer industry during the fiscal 
year 1916-1917, was $97,515. The total number of reindeer, 
namely 98,582, is a net increase of 20 per cent during the 
year, notwithstanding the fact that 13,144 reindeer were 
killed for meat and skins, or were lost. There were in 
Alaska, June 30, 1918, approximately 100,000 reindeer. 

With the establishment of this industry on a firm basis 
the government has reduced the appropriation made to this 
service. A number of reindeer companies have been formed, 
and steps are being taken by scientific management to place 
the industry on a business basis. Outside markets are being 
secured for the meat and for the tanned skins, and reindeer 
meat is now shipped not only to cities on the Pacific coast, 
but to the Middle West and as far as New York. 

It is claimed by some that while a certain amount of new 
blood has been introduced into the herds by association with 
the native caribou, new blood is needed, as the last importa- 
tions of reindeer from Siberia were made in 1902. Con- 
stant inbreeding has led to a noticeable reduction in the 
prolificness of the females, and degeneration is to be ob- 
served in many herds.* 

* The United States Biological Survey is giving attention to the question of 
grazing. In Norway, it has been found that the reindeer moss takes from 
five to seven years to reproduce itself. 



324 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

A serious menace to the industry in Alaska is the preva- 
lence of the reindeer warble-fly. This is of particular im- 
portance on account of the damage that it causes to the 
hides and its consequent effect on the development of a 
market for reindeer leather. This insect is also a serious 
pest in northern Europe and Siberia, and affects a large 
proportion of the native barren-ground caribou in northern 
Canada. 

THE USE OF REINDEER IN CANADA 

Although a vast area of subarctic Canada affords as suit- 
able range for reindeer as the areas in northern Europe and 
Asia, where they have been utihzed by man for centuries, 
and reindeer were introduced into Alaska in 1892, their in- 
troduction into Canada is of comparatively recent date. 
The first and, up to the present, the only attempt to intro- 
duce these animals into Canada was made by Doctor Wil- 
fred T. Grenfell in connection with his famous mission in 
Labrador to deep-sea fishermen, which includes within its 
scope the welfare of the natives of the Labrador coast. 

During his many years of medical-mission work on the 
coast of north Newfoundland and Labrador he discovered 
that one out of every three deaths on the coast was due to 
tuberculosis, and that one out of every three native babies 
died before reaching the age of one year. Diseases due to 
malnutrition were rife among these people. There were no 
milk-producing animals, and milk was the great need on the 
coast. The keeping of sheep, goats, or cattle was out of the 
question, and this caused Doctor Grenfell to turn his atten- 
tion to the possibihty of introducing and using reindeer, 
which had been successfully introduced into Alaska. In the 
introduction to his account* of this work Doctor Grenfell 
gives an excellent account of the economic value of the rein- 

* "Labrador, the Country and the People," by Wilfred T. Grenfell and others 
("Reindeer for Labrador," pp. 251-271), 1909. 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 325 

deer to the people of northern regions that is well worth 
quoting. He says: 

Few other animals on the earth's surface offer as much to man with 
so little outlay. With scarcely any aid, races of men can subsist on what 
these beasts alone can provide. For transport they have been shown, 
under right circumstances, to be able to compete with the Eskimo dog 
in speed and endurance. On the Alaskan tundra, where the snowfall is 
much like that of Labrador, they have been an unqualified success. On 
journeys they can find their own food by the way — an item most impor- 
tant, for the dogs are obliged to carry this additional, and by no means 
inconsiderable, burden with them. Reindeer are now used not only for 
packing over open land uncovered with snow in summer-time, when dogs 
are entirely useless, but they are in regular use for running the United 
States mail service in the depth of an Arctic winter. Geldings are said 
to be far more readUy trained to harness than stags, and are easier to 
keep in good physical condition. At a pinch, one's steeds may be killed 
and eaten with relish, while the carcass, where meat supplies are scarce, 
is always of incomparable value. The tongues and kidneys form great 
deUcacies, and the tongues may be smoked for export. A good-sized 
stag will weigh three hundred pounds, and has for meat alone fetched 
$50 m the Alaskan markets.* The large, thickly haired skin of caribou 
or of the Lapland reindeer is invaluable for many purposes, — for boots, 
clothing, sleeping-bags, tents, and blankets. These skins need scarcely 
any preparatory treatment. Dehaired and dressed, they make most 
satisfactory clothing for use in cold climates. The sleek, dark-brown 
hair of the early fall affords a very beautiful material for ladies' jackets 
or motor coats, and picked skins for such purposes should well repay ex- 
portation; two dollars apiece is the present local price for Labrador deer 
skins. Some of our deer have snow-white skins in winter, and the hair 
is as thick as a cocoanut fibre mat. 

Moccasins manufactured from the thinner deer skins make the warmest 
foot-gear known. The heavier stag skins furnish admirable light, soft, 
flexible over-clothes. They are perfectly wind-proof, and, when dressed 
for use, fetch fifty cents to one dollar per pound weight. Stretched, un- 
dressed, they are sold by the pound as parchment; this, cut into strips, 

* This figure is too high. In 1919 the average value of reindeer in Alaska, 
hide and meat, was only $25 per head. 

In 1919 about 1,000 reindeer carcasses, averaging about 150 pounds each, 
were shipped from Nome to Seattle, making an aggregate of 75 tons. This 
meat sold for 28 cents per pound, f. o. b. Seattle, making the total value of 
the trade about $42,000.— J. W. 



326 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

is rolled up, and sold as babiche, out of which all the fillings for snow- 
shoes are made. Of this, also, are made the lashings for our sledges and 
the harness for our dogs. The tough thongs show remarkable elastic 
strength as they "feel" the jarring and jolting of the rough trails. The 
very tendons that are useless as food are amongst our most valuable acqui- 
sitions, affording our women all the sewing material they need for making 
boots, skin-boats (or kayaks), and clothing. These animal tendons are 
taken and dried, and fetch from ten to fifty cents for each animal. They 
strip easily into single fibres, and these separate threads form a strong 
sewing material, which resists water, and yet, when used in boots in- 
tended to be water-tight, swells up as soon as the boots are immersed in 
moisture. In this way leakage through the needle holes is prevented. 
The tendons do not rot easily, nor do they tear the skin substances, for 
they contract and expand with that material. Even the horns and hoofs 
are valuable, and furnish many of the household essentials of the natives. 
Some of these various manufactured products can be exported to the 
European markets. Reindeer may thus largely increase the earning 
capacity of any region, by converting its unsaleable material into valu- 
able products. The fresh rich milk of the does in the summer has also 
supplied us with what is a vital necessity, and one which was obtainable 
in Labrador in no other way; while the excellent and easily made cheeses 
afford a method of storing the nutriment in a palatable and assimilable 
form without any necessary outlay for a preserving plant. 

Doctor Grenfell consulted Doctor Sheldon Jackson in 
Washington, who had been responsible for the successful 
introduction of the reindeer into Alaska. It was found that 
suitable food occurred in Labrador and Newfoundland, 
where, of course, the native caribou find ample means of 
sustenance. Convinced that a natural means of sustenance 
existed, Doctor Grenfell set to work in 1907 to carry out his 
scheme. He collected a sum of $10,000 by public subscrip- 
tion, and in addition obtained a grant of $5,000 towards the 
work through the Dominion Department of Agriculture. 
It was decided to purchase a herd of 300 reindeer from Nor- 
way and Lapland. Of these 250 were does of an age to 
bear fawns in the following spring, and 50 were stags. In 
addition, a contract for thirty tons of reindeer moss was ar- 
ranged for to serve as feed for the animals en route. It was 



I 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 327 

decided to ship the reindeer from the north coast of Lap- 
land to the mission station of St. Anthony in north New- 
foundland. The herd set sail on December 30, 1907, but, 
owing to ice conditions, it was necessary to land them on 
the Newfoundland coast about eight miles from the har- 
bour selected as the wintering-place for the deer. Lapp 
herders accompanied the deer, which were safely landed and 
took kindly to their new environment. 

In the following spring (1908) the herd was reduced to 
200 does and 50 stags, 50 of the deer having been sold to the 
Anglo-Newfoundland Development Company, 300 miles to 
the south of the place where the herd was maintained, for 
use in the logging camps. As far as it was possible to as- 
certain, 168 fawns were born in the spring. After deduct- 
ing certain losses, the number of reindeer had increased to 
405 animals by the end of 1908. During the summer the 
reindeer chose the high grass-covered hills close to the sea, 
and ate mostly the young grass and green leaves. The does 
gave about a pint of very rich creamy milk per head. 

The herd increased from 250 to 1,250, but, owing to the 
lack of government support, either financially or in checking 
the poaching, which gradually increased, the subsequent 
history of these reindeer was a sad one. As the expenses of 
the Lapp herders could not be met, it was impossible to 
retain them. Instead of creating a reservation for the rein- 
deer from Pistolet Bay to Hare Bay, the killing of reindeer 
north of that line was prohibited, but the prohibition was 
not enforced. It was claimed that the reindeer were ''dan- 
gerous to life," and other objections were raised in order to 
create a local sentiment antagonistic to the animals. In 
the end the poaching became so bold that the fishermen, 
coming in the summer in schooners, used to go out and 
shoot the deer. Thus a gradual diminution in the herd 
took place, until, by the end of 1916, hardly more than 100 
animals remained. 



328 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

Early in 1917 Doctor Grenfell approached the Canadian 
Department of Indian Affairs with a view to having the 
herd of reindeer transferred from Newfoundland to the 
Canadian coast, where it might be developed for the benefit 
of the Indians on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
Owing to various difficulties, it proved impossible to move 
the herd during 1917. In 1918, the International Grenfell 
Association undertook to move the deer in one of their own 
ships, and the Department of Indian Affairs decided to place 
the herd on a peninsula bounded on the west by Napetibi 
Bay and on the east by Lobster Bay. The department 
constructed there one herder's hut and erected posts for a 
fence across the neck of the peninsula, a distance of about 
three and one-half miles. Lack of wire prevented the com- 
pletion of the fence at the time it was begun, but Doctor 
Grenfell agreed to complete the work and move the deer in 
in the fall of 1918. 

The herd was finally moved late in the fall, and herders 
were brought from Newfoundland to take care of them. At 
the time of moving there were about 125 reindeer. Since 
their removal and transfer to the Department of Indian 
Affairs there have been no complaints of poaching, and the 
territory to which they have been moved appears to be well 
suited for the protection and breeding of the deer; 40 fawns 
were born in the spring of 1919.* There is every reason to 
hope that under the more adequate care that will be given 
them by the Canadian Government they will ultimately 
fulfil the expectations of those who believe that they may 
be developed for the benefit of the Indians of that region, 
who stand in great need of the food and clothing that such 
valuable animals produce. 

* In March, 1921, the herd numbered between 140 and 150. 



DOMESTICATION OF RUMINATING MAMMALS 329 

FIRST ATTEMPT TO INTRODUCE REINDEER INTO 
THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES 

In 1911 the Forestry Branch of the Department of the 
Interior undertook the first attempt to introduce reindeer 
into Canada from St. Anthony, Newfoundland, where, as 
ah-eady stated, the herd had been established by Doctor 
W. T. Grenfell. A small herd of fifty deer, comprising forty 
does, six stags, and four oxen, was purchased from him. 
They were shipped from St. Anthony on September 7, 1911, 
to Quebec, via North Sydney, N. S. Accompanying them 
were three experienced herders, thirty days' supply of rein- 
deer moss, and three deer dogs. From Quebec they were 
transported in stock-cars by rail to Edmonton, and thence 
sixty miles north, which was as far as the railroad had been 
at that time completed. From that point they were taken 
in waggons to Athabaska Landing, where they were unloaded 
into four scows, the final destination of the herd being Fort 
Smith. After many difficulties the herd, now reduced by 
deaths to thirty-three animals, was taken to a place about 
seventy miles from Fort Smith, where a camp was estab- 
lished in November. In May, 1912, the herd, now compris- 
ing thirty-one animals, was transported on scows to Fort 
Smith, where quarters had been prepared for them. Dur- 
ing the latter part of June the flies (''bull-dog" flies or Ta- 
banidce) became very troublesome, and the whole herd of 
reindeer stampeded, escaped from the enclosure, and scat- 
tered, with the result that the chief herder was only able 
to recapture twelve of the thirty-one animals. On account 
of the abundance of the flies it was decided to remove what 
remained of thi^ herd elsewhere, for the summer months, 
and a suitable island in Great Slave Lake was selected, but 
as no boat could be obtained at that time the reindeer had 
to remain at Fort Smith until the following year, when the 
flies again tormented the animals to such an extent that they 



330 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

broke from their enclosure and escaped into the surround- 
ing country. After much difficulty eleven of the animals 
were rounded up, but, at the end of the summer of 1913, 
only ten remained in the enclosure at Fort Smith. Owing 
to deaths from unknown causes, only four deer remained in 
the spring of 1914. Finally only two were left, and they 
were transported to an island in Great Slave Lake. The 
last survivor died in the autumn of 1916. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE SALE OF GAME 

It is universally recognized now by sportsmen and con- 
servationists that the free marketing of wild game is one of 
the greatest factors tending rapidly to exterminate our na- 
tive game resources, and that, with the existence of so many 
other factors that are beyond our control, adversely affect- 
ing the abundance of our game mammals and birds, the sale 
of protected game must be prohibited if the disappearance 
of such game is to be prevented and its continued existence 
secured for use and enjoyraent by sportsmen and nature- 
lovers dwelHng in our cities and countryside. 

The sale of game for food is only justified in the case of 
game from private or government game farms and pre- 
serves. The utilization of non-agricultural areas for the 
propagation of game is to be strongly commended, with a 
view to augmenting the domestic meat supply. But the 
sale of such surplus and propagated game is an entirely dif- 
ferent matter from the sale of wild game as it now exists in 
our woods. Let us propagate game by all means for those 
who desire it and are unable to obtain it by other means 
than purchase, but do not allow the market hunter to profit 
at the expense of the wild life, as he will if the sale of game 
is permitted. 

The sale of wild game is unnecessary, as those who need 
it for food are able, as a general rule, to obtain it legitimately 
by taking out a hunting license. Most of the game that is 
sold is consumed not by people who need it but by those 
who do not need it and demand it only to gratify their 
jaded appetites. The fight against laws prohibiting the 

331 



332 CONSERVATION OF CANADIAN WILD LIFE 

sale of game has been carried on not by the sportsmen but 
by the pot-hunters, dealers, and those who profit by such 
commerce. But the game resources of the country are for 
the use and enjoyment of all and not for the small per- 
centage by whom the sale of game is demanded. 

There should be no wavering in this matter, nor catering 
to the interests of a few objectors who are unable to appre- 
ciate the wider significance of this aspect of game protection. 
Our wild life is not sufficiently abundant to withstand the 
toll of the market hunter. Is it preferable to have our 
wild life in its natural haunts for the benefit of the nature- 
lover and sportsman, or in the butchers' and game dealers' 
shops to gratify, in the majority of cases, the tastes of those 
to whom wild-life protection has no meaning or interest? 

In the United States the disastrous results of the policy 
of permitting the sale of game have been so obvious that, 
with the disappearance of the greater portion of the fur and 
feathered game, it has been practically a question of decid- 
ing whether the remainder should be killed and sold for 
food, or protected for legitimate sport. Consequently, no 
less than thirty-four States, including the best of the game 
States, prohibit the sale of protected game, and it is safe to 
predict that the few States which still permit, in a more or 
less modified way, the sale of certain classes of game, will 
follow the example of the majority within a few years. 

In Canada there is a gradual and strong increase in opinion 
against the sale of game. It is realized that, in the more 
settled parts of Canada, there is no excuse for the sale of 
game. Already the sale of protected game is entirely pro- 
hibited in the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. 
In British Columbia the sale of game is prohibited, with the 
exception of moose, which may be sold during part of the 
open season in the northern districts of Atlin, Prince George, 
Omineca, and Cariboo, and bear, which may be sold 
throughout the province. In Nova Scotia moose is the 



THE SALE OF GAME 333 

only game that may be sold when lawfully killed. The sale 
of certain game, such as grouse and wild fowl, is prohibited 
in most of the provinces. In 1918 the sale of game was 
prohibited in New Brunswick, but we deeply regret that it 
was resumed after one season's trial, owing to the natural 
opposition which was found to such a necessary measure. 
The act was repealed in spite of the fact that the sportsmen 
and guides of the province are strongly of the opinion that, 
in New Brunswick, the conservation of the game, and par- 
ticularly the moose, depends upon the prohibition of its 
sale. We would urge not only upon the Province of New 
Brunswick, but also upon all other provinces that have not, 
as yet, adopted this essential measure, to amend their game 
laws in such a manner as to make it illegal to sell protected 
game of all kinds, except in those remote regions where the 
difficulty of obtaining other forms of meat may render nec- 
essary the sale of game, lawfully killed; in such cases ade- 
quate safeguards, such as the appointment of special hunt- 
ers to kill such game, and the submittal of sworn statements 
as to the amount killed and its disposal, should be adopted 
to prevent abuse of the privilege. Such prohibition will 
have to come sooner or later, and it is surely more desirable 
to put it into effect while the game is still fairly abundant 
than to wait until its rarity compels the adoption of this 
essential step in game and wild-life protection. 



INDEX 



Adverse factors to conservation, 21 

Agriculture, Canada's basic industry, 
7; effect of extension of, 23; effect 
of, on antelope, 72 

Agriculture Dept., Canadian, cross- 
breeding of buffalo by, 140 

Alaska, last stronghold of big game, 26 

Alberta, bird reserves in, 300; game 
legislation of, 282; game reserves 
in, 252 

Algonquin Park, deer killed for meat 
in, 247; description of, 247; wild 
life in, 247 

Allen, J. A., quoted on buffalo, 116; 
quoted on Osborn's caribou, 70; 
quoted on musk-ox, 89 

American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, 97 

Anderson, Dr. R. M., quoted on cari- 
bou, 59, 60, 65; on skins used for 
clothing, 59, 86; report on musk-ox 
prepared by, 95; reports of, on 
bird reserves, 301 

Anglo-Newfoundland Development 
Co., use reindeer in logging camps, 

327 
Animals, periodic fluctuations of, 213 
Antelope, 5; abundance of, 73; distri- 
bution of, in Canada, 73; effect 
of extension of agriculture upon, 
72; habits of, 73; history of, 71; 
slaughter of, 72 
Antelope Park, 75, 240 
Archibald, E. S., statement on cross- 
breeding buffalo by, 140 
Area of Dominion Parks, 242 
Asia, central, mountain sheep of, 5 
Auks, razorbill, breeding, 308 
Auld, F. H., on control of wolves and 
coyotes in Saskatchewan, 200 

Bacon, W. H., supplies fur returns of 
Hudson's Bay Co., 215 



Baird, Prof. S. F., on domestication 
of ruminants, 311; on reindeer, 319 

Balance of nature in wild life, 22 

Barber, Charles, quoted, 30, 44, 69 

Barren-ground grizzly bear (see bear) 

Barren lands, fur trade of, 10 

Basin Lake game reserve, description 
of, 303 

Bear, barren-ground grizzly, 108 

Bear, black, fluctuations of, 232; 
habits of, 109; skins of, 108; wide 
range of, 108 

Bear, grizzly, distribution of, 103; 
habits of, 104; variation in colour 
of, 107 

Bear, Kermode's white, description 
of, no 

Bear, polar, habits of, 102; in need of 
protection, 102 

Bears, in general, loi; protection of, 
III; sale of meat in British Co- 
lumbia, 33 

Beaver, fluctuations in numbers of, 
232 

Beaver Hills game reserve, area of, 
250 

Bedson, S. L., buffalo cross-breeding 
by, 138 

Bell, J. M., quoted on barren-ground 
grizzly bear, 107 

Berlepsch, Baron Von, bird protec- 
tion of, 177 

Bernier, Capt. Joseph E., supplies 
musk-ox to New York, 316 

Big Hay Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 305 

Big-horn sheep (see sheep) 

Big River game reserve, area of, 251 

Bigstick Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 304 

Biological Investigation of the Atha- 
baska-Mackenzie Region, 51 

Birch Island game reserve, area of, 249 



335 



336 



INDEX 



Birch Lake bird reserve, description 

of, 304 

Bird-boxes, 177 

Bird census, in Manitoba, 173; in 
United States, 175 

Bird-houses, at Ottawa, 192; dia- 
grams of, 179; dimensions of, 180 

Bird protection and encouragement, 
176 

Bird reserves, government, 300; in 
Saskatchewan, 301 

Bird Rocks, as a bird reservation, 307 

Birds, analysis of stomachs of, 168; 
destruction of enemies, 181 ; de- 
struction of haunts of, 172; 
economic value of, 166; feeding 
habits of, 168; general, 143; local 
abundance of, 172; slaughtering 
grounds of, 24; vegetable food of, 
183; weed seed scattered by, 170 

Bison (see buffalo) 

Black, George, quoted on caribou, 60 

Black bear (see bear) 

Blue geese (see geese) 

Bobcat, description of, 210 

Bonaventure Island, as a bird reser- 
vation, 307 

Boy Scouts, value of, 287 

Boyd, Mossom, herd of cattalos of, 
140 

Bradshaw, F., quoted, 30, 31, 45, 69, 

74. 251 

Braithwaite, Henry, quoted on wood- 
land caribou, 68 

Brant, breeding ground of, 149 

British Columbia, game legislation 
of, 283; reserves in, 253 

Brondgeest, J. T., quoted on antelope, 

73 
Buffalo, almost disappeared, 113; 
cross-breeding of, 138; destruction 
of, 117; disposal of surplus of, 138; 
distribution of, in Canada, 114; 
domestication of, 136; end of, 
hastened by railways, 119; former 
meat supply of Indians, 118; fu- 
ture of, in Canada, 136; in Europe, 
5; last shipment of robes of, 122; 
losses of, by storms, 116; methods 
of slaughter of, 118; migration of, 



116; northern and southern herds, 
120; protected by Indians, 119; 
protection of, in parks. 113; range 
of, 18, 113; slaughter of southern 
herd, 120; suitable to winter con- 
ditions, 137; where existing, 5 

Buffalo, wood, estimate of number of, 
124; numbers increasing, 133; need 
protection of reserve, 126; pro- 
tected by Indians, 128, 133; range 
of, 123, 127, 130; two separate 
bands, 129 

Buffalo Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 305 

Buffalo Park, creation of, 134; de- 
scription of, 240; number of buffalo 
in, 135; wapiti in, 34; wild life in, 
240 

Burnham, John B., on causes of 
scarcity of grouse, 164 

Bury, H. T., quoted on moose, 52; 
on woodland caribou, 69 

Cabot, Wm. B., quoted on Labrador 

and Niagara, 214-215 
Camsell, C, report on wood buffalo 

by, 129 
Canada, last stronghold of big game, 

26; status of wild life of, 2 
Canada goose (see geese) 
Canadian Birds, catalogue of, 149 
Canadian sportsmen, advantages of, 

14 

Canadians, lack of appreciation of 
wild life by, 7 

Caribou, 10, 56; as a source of meat 
supply, II, 26; danger of extinction 
of, 21; distribution of, 59, 69; eco- 
nomic value of, 64; enormous 
herds of, 63; habits of, 58, 61; 
Osborn's, 70; spring killing of, by 
Eskimos, 65; utilization of, by 
Indians, 63; range of, 68; Rocky 
Mountain, 71 

Caribou warble-fly, 67 

Catlin, on numbers of buffalo killed. 
119 

Cats, as bird destroyers, 181 

Cattalo, at Scott, Sask., 142; breed- 
ing of, 140 



INDEX 



337 



Caucasus, buffalo of, 5 

Cavell, Mount Edith, 236 

Cedar Lake game reserve, area of, 
249 

Central Experimental Farm, a bird 
sanctuary, 191 

Chaplin Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 303 

Chapman, Robert, quoted on moun- 
tain caribou, 69 

Charlton, H. R., on game protection, 
267 

Christy, Miller, on number of wood 
buffalo, 124 

Civic game reserves, value of, 294 

Clarke, Dr. John M., on birds of 
Bird Rocks, 308 

Clearwater and Smoky Rivers re- 
serve, 255 

Clubs, interests of, in wild life, 292 

Code of ethics, the sportsman's, 298 

Commission of Conservation, investi- 
gations of, 166; on provincial game 
reserves, 243; recommendations of, 
31; reports of, 4; resolution of, on 
treaty on bird protection, 268 

Community effort in wild life con- 
servation, 286 

Connaught, Duke of, quoted, 242 

Conroy, Inspector H. A., report on 
Indians, 128 

Conservation of Fish, Birds, and 
Game, quoted, 66 

Cooking Lake forest reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 252 

Cougars, 195; number killed in 
British Columbia, 198 

Coyotes, 194; bounty paid on, in 
Alberta, 199; bounty paid on, in 
Saskatchewan, 201 ; destroy sheep, 
197; number killed in British Co- 
lumbia, 198; organized control of, 
needed, 204 

Cram Lake bird reserve, description 

of, 304 
Cranes, Little Brown, 155; Sandhill, 
155; three species of, 154; whoop- 
ing, 154 
Criddle, Norman, bird census of, 172 
Crocker Land Expedition, 97 



Crown lands, Dominion parks re- 
stricted to, 236 

Crows, consume cut- worms, 170; 
food of, 167 

Curlews, 156, 159; Eskimo, migra- 
tions of, 20; long-billed, 160 

Cypress Hills forest and game re- 
serve, description of, 252 

Cypress Hills game reserve, area of, 
250 

Dall's white mountain sheep (see 

sheep) 
Danish Government, administers fur 

trade of Greenland, 261 
Deer, as a meat supply, 7, 26 
Deer, Columbia black-tailed, 46 
Deer, mule, characteristics of, 43; 
distribution of, 44; habits of, 44; 
in Alberta, 45; in British Columbia, 
45; in Manitoba, 44; in Rocky 
Mountain Park, 45; in Saskatche- 
wan, 44; in Waterton Lakes Park, 
45; slaughter of, 45 
Deer, white-tailed, 8, 9, 37; abun- 
dance of, 41 ; distinguishing fea- 
tures of, 38; distribution of, 38; 
habits of, 39; meat supply by, 42; 
original wide range of, 41; species 
of, 37 
Doghead Point game reserve, area 

of, 249 
Domestication of animals, 310 
Dominion National Parks, area of, 242 
Dominion Parks Act, 258; regula- 
tions of, 275 
Don Pablo, Michel, buffalo herd of, 

134 

Duck Mountain game reserve, area 
of, 249, 251 

Ducks, 149; baldpate or American 
widgeon, 150; black, 150; canvas- 
back, 152; eider, 152; gadwall, 150; 
golden-eye or whistler, 152; mal- 
lard, 150; merganser, 150; pin-tail, 
151; redhead, 152; scaup or blue- 
bill, 152; scoters, 154; shoveller or 
spoonbill, 151; teal, 151; wood, 151 

Duck-shooting, clubs and private 
reserves, 293 



338 



INDEX 



Edmonton, J. T., quoted, 45 
Education, value of, in wild life 

conservation, 286 
Eider ducks, economic importance 

of, 153 
Ekblaw, W. Elmer, on musk-ox, 92, 97 
Elk (see wapiti) 
Elk Island Park, description of, 239; 

wapiti in, 34; wild life in, 239 
Elk River reserve, 253 
Elk teeth, slaughter of elk for, 27 
Enemies of birds, destruction of, 181 
England, practice in, on damage by 

animals, 9 
Eskimo curlew, 264 
Eskimos, food supply of, 12 ; killing 

of caribou by, 65, 66 
Ethics, sportsman's code of, 298 
Extermination of wild life, causes of, 17 

Fall shooting, regulation of, 24 
Fannin's saddle-backed sheep (see 

sheep) 
Farmers, rights of, to wild life, 290 
Fauna, Canadian, groups covered, 2 
Federal Migratory Bird Law, 266, 267 
Female animals require protection, 22 
Field- Naturalists' Club, Ottawa, ef- 
forts of, on bird sanctuaries, 191 
Fisher, fluctuations in, 229; range 

of, 229 
Flies, bull-dog, 329 
Florida Everglades, drainage of, 19 
Fluctuations in numbers of fur- 
bearing animals, 213 
Food and water for birds, provision 

of, 189 
Forbush, E. H., quoted, 181 
Forest fires, effect of, on wild life, 22, 

51 

Fort-a-la-Corne game reserve, area 
of, 251 

Four Years in the White North, 
quoted, 97 

Foxes, destructive to game-birds, 
210; fluctuation in numbers of, 222 

Franklin, Sir John, quoted on barren- 
ground grizzly bear, 107 

Eraser, W. W., quoted on control of 
wolves and coyotes, 203 



Fruit-bearing trees and shrubs, list 

of, 184 
Fur-bearing animals, value of, 11 
Fur Farming in Canada, 4 
Fur resources, national ownership 

of, 260 
Fur trade, chief occupation of north, 

258 
Fur trader, independent, effect of, 13 

Game as food, sale of, 331 
Game Birds of California, 149 
Game Birds, Wild Fowl and Shore 

Birds, 149 
Game Conservation Board, British 

Columbia, 34 
Game legislation, provincial, 277 
Game protection, by farmers, 290 
Game Protective Associations, or- 
ganization of, 295 
Game Refuge Act, New Brunswick, 

243 

Game reserves, area of, in Canada, 256 

Game reserves, in Alberta, 252; pro- 
vincial, 243; summary of, in 
Canada, 255 

Game Resources of Alaska, quoted, 60 

Gannet, breeding, 308 

Gaspesian Forest, Fish, and Game 
Preserve, 244 

Geese, blue, breeding-ground of, 149; 
Canada, breeding-grounds of, 146; 
migrations of, 146; tags of, re- 
turned, 148; Hutchins's, range of, 
148; snow, or white, breeding- 
ground of, 149; reserve for, in 
Nova Scotia, 308 

Glacier National Park, 238, 240 

Goat, Rocky Mountain, 5, 86; distri- 
bution of, 88; habits of, 87; in 
Dominion parks, 88; number killed 
in Alberta, 88 

Goshawk, destroyer of game-birds, 
210 

Graham, Maxwell, 75 

Grasses, collection of, 131 

Great Auk, 264; extinction of, 20 

Greenland, musk-ox of, 5; fur trade 
of, 261 

Grenfell, Dr. Wilfred T., 328; dis- 



INDEX 



339 



poses of reindeer, 329; experiments 
of, with reindeer, 324; on uses of 
reindeer, 325 

Grindstone Point game reserve, area 
of, 249 

Grizzly bear (see bears) 

Grouse, 161; pinnated, or prairie 
chicken, 162; causes of decrease of, 
164; prairie sharp-tailed, 163; 
ptarmigan, 162; Richardson's, 161; 
ruffed, 162; spruce, 161; sage, or 
sage-hen, 165; scarcity of, 163 

Gulls, inland, feed on grubs, 171 

Hall, W. C. T., quoted, 245 
Hanbury, D. T., quoted on caribou, 63 
Harkin, J. B., report of, quoted, 34 
Harmon, on abundance of wood buf- 
falo, 124 
Hawks, Cooper's, description of, 211; 
food of, 168; sharp-shinned, de- 
scription of, 211 
Hearne, Samuel, on occurrence of 
wood buffalo, 123; on barren- 
ground grizzly bear, 107 
Henry, Alexander, on former abun- 
dance of buffalo, 117; on grizzly 
bear, 103 
Hind's expedition, 1859, 119 
Hollister, N., quoted on Rocky Moun- 
tain caribou, 71 
Hornaday, W. T., quoted, vi, 19, 27, 
73. 97. 116; ethical code of, 298; 
estimate of buffalo by, in 1889, 122, 
134; on attempts to colonize musk- 
ox, 311; on buffalo on prairies, 
137; on effects of railways on buf- 
falo, 120; on extermination of buf- 
falo, 113; on habits of musk-ox, 
317; on musk-ox in captivity, 316 
How to Attract Birds, 184 
Hudson's Bay Co., annual returns of 
musk-ox skins, 99; fur returns of, 
216, 220, 222; moose killed for, 53; 
sales of musk-ox skins by, 93; 
sales of skins of whistling swans 
by, 144; returns of skins by, 225; 
returns of bear-skins by, 102, 108; 
rights of, 261; trade of, 12; wood 
buffalo meat brought to, 125 



Hulbert, A, B., on buffalo routes, 123 
Humane Society, Ottawa, efforts of, 

on bird sanctuaries, 191 
Hunting territories, Quebec, 292 
Hutchins's goose (see geese) 

Indian Affairs Dept., take over Gren- 

fell reindeer, 328 
Indians, Dog-Ribs, 62 
Insects destroyed by birds, 167 
Isle of Bays reserve, 251 

Jackson, Dr. Sheldon, on reindeer, 
319. 326 

Jackson Hole, wapiti secured from, 34 

Jarvis, A. M., on number of wood 
buffalo, 125, 126 

Jasper Park, description of, 236; 
wild life in, 236 

Johnston Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 302 

Jones, C. J., buffalo cross-breeding 
by. 139; experience of, with buffalo, 
136 

Joy, Sergt. A. H., quoted, 64 

Keele, Joseph, quoted re sheep, 85 
Kenaston, Prof. C. A., exploration 

by, 121 
Kermode, F., bear species discovered 

by, no 
Killing must be regulated, 19 
Kipling, quotation from, 14 
Klotz, Dr. Otto, quoted on wood 

buffalo, 125 
Knight, J. A., on geese at Port Joli, 

309 

Labrador, caribou of, 11; experi- 
ments with reindeer in, 324 

Labrador duck, 264; extinction of, 
18 

Lac la Biche bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 306 

Lake Lenore bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 303 

Lake St. Martin game reserve, area 
of, 249 

Lake Winnipegosis game reserve, 
area of, 249 



340 



INDEX 



La Nauze, Inspector, report on musk- 
ox by, 95 

Lantz, David E., quoted, 37 

Last Mountain Lake bird reserve, 
description of, 302 

Laurentides National Park, descrip- 
tion of, 245; wild life of, 245 

Lawton, B., quoted, 31; on wolves 
and coyotes, 199 

Legislation, provincial game, 277 

Lemoine, Father, quoted on wapiti, 28 

Life Histories of Northern Animals, 
quoted, 73, 226 

Lion, mountain, 195 

Lithuania, buffalo of, 5 

Live stock, destroyed by wolves and 
coyotes, 195 

Lloyd, Reuben, antelope on farm of, 
74; game preserve of, 289 

Loring, J. Alden, quoted, 45 

Lynx, Canada, 209; fluctuations in 
number of, 219 

MacDonald, T. K., experience of, 226 

MacFarlane, R., quoted, 50, 69, 92, 
93, 107, 114, 216, 226, 234 

MacKenzie, Thomas P., quoted on 
losses of sheep, 196 

MacLeod, Sergt. R. W., report of, on 
wood buffalo, 128 

MacMillan, Dr. Donald B,, on abun- 
dance of musk-ox, 97 

Macoun, Jo'an, on wood buffalo, 124 

Macoun, J. M., collection of northern 
grasses by, 131 

Macoun, W. T., list of trees and 
shrubs by, 184 

Macrae, J. A., quoted on wood buffalo, 
125 ^ 

Manchester, city of, bird protection 
by, 180 

Manitoba, game legislation of, 281; 
provincial game reserves in, 249 

Many Island Lake bird reserve, de- 
scription of, 305 

Market hunters, 21 

Markham, Sir Clements, writings of, 97 

Marsh, Miss E. L., sanctuary of, 289 

Marten, fluctuations of, 226; feed on 
adult insects, 169; migration of, 227 



McAtee, quoted on attracting birds, 
184 

McConnell, R. G., quoted on moun- 
tain sheep, 85 

McDonald, R. C, quoted, 32 

Mellor, Corp., report on wood buffalo 
by, 127 

Merriam, Dr. C. Hart, collection of 
bear skulls of, 107 

Mershon, W. B., quoted, 20 

Mexico, birds not protected in, 156 

Mice, importance of as food of other 
animals, 214 

Migratory Bird Treaty, action of 
governments on, 268; effect of, on 
game birds, 156; provides close 
season for swans, 145; text of, 270 

Migratory birds, causes of decrease, 
265 

Migratory Birds Convention Act, 
258, 264; regulations under, 274 

Miner, Jack, sanctuary of, 146, 289; 
tags returned to, 148 

Ministik Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 306 

Mink, fluctuations in, 230 

Miquelon Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 305 

Moldavia, buffalo of, 5 

Moose, 4, 46; as a food supply, 56; 
distribution and abundance of, 48; 
habits of, 55; number killed, 48, 
50; protection of, 47 

Moose Mountain game reserve, 250 

Mount Robson Park, 254 

Mountain caribou (see caribou) 

Mountain lion, 195 

Mountain sheep, special reserve for, 

255 

Moving pictures, value of, in educa- 
tion, 288 

Mule deer (see deer, mule) 

Mulloy, G. A., report of, on wood 
buffalo, 128 

Murres breeding, 308 

Musk-ox, 5, 12; description of, 89; 
distribution of, 95; domestication 
of, 310; habitat of, 97; migrations 
of, 98; protection of, 98; range of, 
89; slaughter of, 92, 94; suggested 



INDEX 



341 



sanctuary for, 94; value of, as fur- 
bearer, 93 
Musk-ox robes, value of, 98 
Muskrat, fluctuations in, 232 

Nature study, value of, 287 

Nelson, Dr. E. W., discovers new 
species of sheep, 84; on control of 
predatory animals, 207; on range 
of buflfalo, 116; on wood buffalo, 
124; on Dall's sheep, 77 

Nesting-boxes, 177 

New Brunswick, game legislation of, 
279; sale of game in, 333 

New Brunswick game reserve, 243 

New Mammals from Canada, Alaska, 
and Kamchatka, quoted, 71 

Nichols, D. A., quoted, 32 

Non-agricultural lands, use of, 7; po- 
tential value for wild-life reserves, 
10, 12 

North American Fish and Game 
Protective Assn., 267 

Northwest Game Act, 100, 125, 258, 
259, 260 

Northwest Territories, attempt to 
introduce reindeer into, 329; de- 
velopment of, 10 

Notes on Mountain Sheep in North 
America, quoted, 77 

Nova Scotia, deer bones found in, 41; 
deer introduced into, 42; game 
legislation of, 278; game reserve 
for, 256; sale of moose meat al- 
lowed, 332 

Nuthatches, insect food of, 168 

Odell, Carmen, introduces deer into 

Nova Scotia, 42 
Ogilvie, W., quoted, on wood buffalo, 

125 
Oliver, Hon. Frank, quoted, on wood 

buffalo, 125 
Oliver Lake bird reserve, description 

of, 305 
Ontario, game legislation of, 281 
Osborn's caribou, 70 
Osgood, W. H., quoted on caribou, 60 
Ottawa, game reserve suggested in 

federal plan of, 294 



Otter, fluctuations in, 232 
Our National Elk Herds, quoted, 28 
Our Shorebirds and Their Future, 157 
Owl, great horned, destructive to 
birds, 210; food of, 168 

Pakowki Lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 306 
Panther, 195 

Parks, national, protect wild life, 235 
Parks Branch, 75, 138, 236, 268 
Pasquia game reserve, area of, 251 
Passenger pigeon, 264; slaughter of, 20 
Peasemarsh Farm sanctuary, 289 
Peonan Point game reserve, area of, 

249 
Perce Rock, as a bird reservation, 307 
Pike, Warburton, quoted on caribou, 

61, 62, 64 
Plea for the Conservation of the 

Eider, 154 
Plover, 156 

Point Pelee National Park, descrip- 
tion of, 241 
Poison, for destruction of predatory 

animals, 208 
Polar bear (see bear) 
Porcupine game reserve, area of, 251 
Port Joli, N. S., reserve for geese, 309 
Prairie chicken (see grouse) 
Preble, E. A., quoted, 21, 45, 51, 85, 

126, 218 
Predatory animals, 17, 193, 206, 207, 

293 

Predatory birds, 210, 293 

Prince Edward Island, game legisla- 
tion of, 278 

Private sanctuaries, 289 

Protection and encouragement of 
birds, 176 

Provincial game legislation, 277 

Provincial Museum, Victoria, sheep 
specimen in, 77 

Puffin, breeding, 308 

Puma, 195 

Quail, or bob-white, 160 
Quebec, game legislation of, 280 
Quetico Forest Reserve, description 
of, 248 



342 



INDEX 



Quill Lakes bird reserve, description 
of, 303 

Rabbit, or varying hare, fluctuation 
of, 216 

Raccoon, fluctuations in, 232 

Railways, effect of, on wild life, 18 

Rainey, Paul J., herd of musk-ox of, 
316 

Raising deer and other large animals 
in the United States, 37 

Red Deer Point game reserve, area 
of, 249 

Redberry lake bird reserve, descrip- 
tion of, 303 

Reindeer, advantages of, 12; develop- 
ment of, in Alaska, 318; importa- 
tion of skins into Canada, 59-60; 
introduced into Northwest Terri- 
tories, 329; purchased from Europe, 
326; regulations for, in Alaska, 
322; use of, in Canada, 324 

Reindeer Island game reserve, area 
of, 249 

Reserves, private, feeding on, 293; 
food-planting, 293 

Revelstoke Park, 241 

Richardson, John, quoted, 107, 124 

Riding Mountain game reserve, 28, 
249 

Robins, as insect destroyers, 167 

Rocky Mountain caribou (see cari- 
bou) 

Rocky Mountain sheep (see sheep) 

Rocky Mountain Park, description 
of, 237; wapiti in, 34; wild life in, 
237 

Rondeau Provincial Park, description 
of, 248 

Roosevelt, Theodore, quoted, on 
value of clubs, 292 

Rutland, Vt., action of sportsmen 
of, 9 

Sage hen (see grouse) 
Sale of game, 332, 333 
Sanctuaries for birds, 190, 289 
Sandpipers, 158; least, 159; migration 
range, 155; semi-palmated, 158; 



solitary, 159; upland plover, or 
Bartramian, 159 

Saskatchewan, bird reserves in, 300, 
301; game legislation of, 31, 282; 
some reserves in, 250 

Saskatchewan Rivers (North and 
South) game reserves, 251 

Saunders, W. E., bird protection 
work of, 175 

Schultz, Hon. Dr., estimate of num- 
ber of wood buffalo, 124 

Science, quoted, 41 

Scott, Capt. R. F., quoted, 287 

Scott, D. C, quoted, 15 

Seton, Ernest Thompson, quoted, 
28, 31, 44, 73, 75, 93, 104, 126, 
218, 226 

Sheep, black mountain, description 
of, 76, 81; Dall's, description of, 76, 
84; losses of, in British Columbia, 
195; mountain, 5; protection of, 
203; Rocky Mountain, 76, 78, 79, 
80; Saddle-backed (Fannin's), 77; 
Stone's, or black mountain, 76, 81 

Sheldon, Charles, quoted on sheep, 
77, 78, 81, 85 

Shikar Club, object of, 297 

Shore-birds, or waders, 155 

Siberia, importations of reindeer 
from, 318 

Skunk, fluctuations in, 230 

Smith, Harlan I., discovery of, 41 

Snipe, 156 

Snow or white goose (see geese) 

South America, bird protection in, 
156 

Sparrows, native, as weed destroyers, 
169 

Sport and Travel in Northland of 
Canada, quoted, 63 

Sportsmen, interested in game pro- 
tection, 296 

Spring shooting, effect of, 23 

Spruce Woods game reserve, area of, 
249 

Stefansson, V., on caribou, 60; on 
musk-ox, 92, 98; on domestica- 
tion of musk-ox, 311 

Stone, A. J., quoted on moose, 52 



INDEX 



343 



Stone's black mountain sheep (see 

sheep) 
St. Lawrence, bird reservations in 

Gulf of, 307 
Strathcona Park, 254 
Swallows, feed on adult insects, 169 
Swamps, effect of drainage of, 23 
Swans, trumpeter, 145; whistling, 144 

Taverner, P. A., 241, 255; estimate 
by, of birds on Bonaventure 
Island, 308; on Canada goose, 146; 
on scarcity of grouse, 164; on 
whistling swans, 144 

The Pines game reserve, area of, 250 

Thrush, food of, 168 

Tit, blue, insect food of, 167, 168 

Townsend, Dr, C. W., quoted, 154, 

319 
Trading posts, new, in Canadian 

Arctic, 60 
Trapping of wolves, coyotes, 204 
Treaty on bird protection, resolu- 
tion on, 267 
Tree-creepers, insect food of, 168 
Trees and shrubs attractive to birds, 

184-188 
Trembling Mountain Park, 244 
Turtle Mountain game reserve, area 

of, 249 
Tyrrell, J. B,, on barren-ground 

grizzly bear, 107; on caribou, 63; 

on moose, 52; on musk-ox, 94 
Tyrrell, J. W., quoted on caribou, 65 

United States, animals extend range 
to, 5; raising deer and other large 
animals in, 37; wild life lost to, I 

United States Dept. of Agriculture, 
bird census of, 175 

Useful Birdsand Their Protection, 181 

Utah Live Stock Board, estimate by, 
of losses of sheep by wolves, 206 

Vancouver, bird sanctuary in Stan- 
ley Park at, 192 
Vermont, experience of, 8, 9 

Wallachia, buffalo of, 5 

Wapiti, or elk, 4, 5; as meat supply. 



36; bulletin on, 37; decreasing in 
Alberta, 31; distribution of, in 
Saskatchewan, 30; estimated num- 
ber of, 28; habits of, 35; in British 
Columbia, 32, 33; in Manitoba, 30; 
popular name for, 4; range of, 28; 
representative of European rein- 
deer, 26 

Warblers, insect food of, 168 

Wascana game reserve, 251 

Waterton Lakes Park, description of, 
238; wapiti in, 34; wild life in, 239 

Weed seeds eaten by birds, 169 

Wharton, W. P., estimate by, of 
buffalo in 1912, 134 

Wheeler, Dr. W. M., Preface, v 

Whistling swan (see swan) 

White Bear Lake bird reserve, 304 

White, James (J. W.), buffalo in 
Wainwright Buffalo Park, 135; on 
sale of reindeer meat, 325 

White wavey geese, 149 

Wild fowl, slaughtering grounds of, 24 

Wild life, conservation of, 7, 18; con- 
ditions militating against, 235; re- 
lation of Indians to, 12; danger in 
numbers of, 19; economic devel- 
opment of, 10; enemies of, 193; 
extermination of, 17; protection of, 
by Dominion Government, 258; rec- 
reative value of, 13; relation of, 
to natives, 12; value of, to farmers, 
291 

Wild Life Conservation, 9 

Wild Life Protection, Advisory Board 
on, 259 

Wild life protection, individual effort 
in, 286 

Wilderness of the Upper Yukon, 
quoted, 77 

Wilkins, George H., quoted on musk- 
ox, 95 

Williams, Bryan, quoted, 33, 53, 70, 
83, 88, 198 

Wilson, Dr. C. W., quoted on moose, 

53 
Wintemberg, W. J., discovery of, 41 
Wire fences, effect of, on antelope, 72 
Wolverine, fluctuations in, 232 
Wolves, bounty paid on, in Alberta, 



344 INDEX 

199; destruction of stock by, 206- Yalakom game reserve, 253 

207; in Laurentides Park, 245, 246; Yellowlegs, 156; greater and lesser, 

enemies of deer, 193; fluctuation in 159 

numbers of, 225; food of, 225; Yoho Park, 240 

number killed, 198 Yukon, caribou of, 11; fur resources 

Wood bison (see buffalo) of, 262; killing of game by Indians 

Woodcock, 156 of, 263 

Woodland caribou (see caribou) Yukon Game Ordinance, 258, 262 
Woodpeckers, food of, 171 

Zoological Society of New York, on 

Yak, proposed cross-breeding with, 142 musk-ox in captivity, 316 



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